posts_gdocs
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| id ▲ | slug | type | content | published | createdAt | publishedAt | updatedAt | publicationContext | revisionId | breadcrumbs | markdown | title |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1zzTqdQC1XVVfDbq9iZKDk09Re0y8nRgL7zMpZnul-zM | rotavirus-vaccine | article | {
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"slug": "rotavirus-is-the-leading-cause-of-childhood-diarrhea",
"text": "Rotavirus is the leading cause of childhood diarrhea",
"title": "Rotavirus is the leading cause of childhood diarrhea",
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"slug": "rotavirus-vaccines",
"text": "Rotavirus vaccines",
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"slug": "rotavirus-vaccine-could-save-the-lives-of-even-more-children",
"text": "Rotavirus vaccine could save the lives of even more children",
"title": "Rotavirus vaccine could save the lives of even more children",
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"slug": "immunisation-rates-are-still-too-low",
"text": "Immunisation rates are still too low",
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"slug": "vaccine-efficacy-differs-by-region",
"text": "Vaccine efficacy differs by region",
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"slug": "other-high-impact-interventions",
"text": "Other high-impact interventions",
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"text": "Diarrhea is the third leading ",
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"text": "cause of child mortality",
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"text": " \u2013 it claimed ",
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"text": "more than half a million",
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"text": " children in 2017. Rotavirus is the leading cause of diarrhea in children \u2013 it is estimated that between one-quarter and one-third of all child deaths from diarrhea are the result of rotavirus infection.",
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"text": "Countries which have introduced ",
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"text": " against rotavirus have seen significant reductions in rotavirus-related cases of diarrhea. Improved coverage and better vaccine efficacy in low-income countries could save even more lives.",
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"text": "leading cause of diarrheal disease",
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"text": " in children globally. It's estimated that between one-quarter and one-third of all child deaths from diarrhea are the result of rotavirus infection.",
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"text": " study estimated that rotavirus was the cause of 128,500 deaths and was responsible for an estimated 258 million cases of infectious diarrhea among children under-5 in 2016.",
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"text": "The map shows the global distribution of rotavirus-related child deaths. As we can see, the highest mortality rates occur in the Sub-Saharan region. In terms of total numbers, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo and India have the highest ",
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"text": "the major risk factors",
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"text": ", associated with 84% of all deaths from diarrheal disease in children.",
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"text": "While reducing these risk factors can help to avoid a large number of rotavirus cases, it is not sufficient to prevent all infections. However, we do have an effective intervention against the virus: the rotavirus vaccine.",
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"text": "The first widely-used rotavirus vaccine was approved in the United States in 2006. Today, there are four oral rotavirus vaccines recommended for use by the World Health Organisation (WHO): Rotarix, RotaTeq, RotaSiil, and Rotavac.",
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"text": "Rotarix and RotaTeq are the most widely used and both have shown good efficacy against rotavirus infections in clinical trials.",
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"text": "Since the use of rotavirus vaccines have been approved, they have had a notable impact on the reduction of rotavirus-related deaths. According to a study published in 2018, the use of rotavirus vaccines prevented approximately 28,900 child deaths globally in 2016. However, as the chart shows, full vaccine use \u2013 that is a 100% coverage globally \u2013 could have prevented an additional 83,200 deaths.",
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"text": " This means that, even at the current rates of efficacy, 53% of all deaths in children under-5 from rotavirus in 2016 could have been avoided by full vaccine coverage.",
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"text": "In addition to saving lives, the rotavirus vaccine also reduces the burden on healthcare systems. Between 2008 and 2016 the introduction of the rotavirus vaccine has reduced the number of diarrhea-related hospital admissions on average by 40%.",
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"text": "If there is so much scope for saving more children\u2019s lives, what is the reason that these children are still dying?",
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"text": "There are two key barriers to achieving the full potential of the rotavirus vaccine: immunization rates, and the efficacy of the vaccine in specific regions.",
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"text": "According to the WHO, by the end of 2018, 101 countries were using the rotavirus vaccine. The major drivers for the introduction of the vaccine are the burden of diarrheal diseases, the availability of funding, and a favourable political climate for vaccines.",
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"text": "The vaccine is only given to children \u2013 it\u2019s recommended that the vaccination should be initiated 15 weeks after birth and finished by the 32nd week. However, the global coverage is still very low: it is estimated that just 35% of under one-year-olds were vaccinated in 2018.",
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"text": "The map shows the WHO estimates on the share of one-year olds who received the full recommended dosage of the vaccine (two immunizations for Rotarix vaccine or three immunizations for RotaTeq vaccine). For many countries where data coverage is low, it\u2019s expected that the share of infants receiving the vaccine is very low. Some countries however did see rapid increases in rates of immunization. In a period of only a few years countries including ",
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"text": " have increased immunisation rates from below 10% to 80-95% \u2013 click on the country to see the change over time.",
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"text": " occur in Sub-Saharan Africa where ",
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"text": ", it is essential to increase and maintain high immunisation coverage in this region. However, in addition to delivering the vaccine for those who need it, we also need to work on improving its efficacy.",
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"text": "Vaccine efficacy for the rotavirus vaccine is defined as the percentage reduction of the rate of diarrhea incidences in vaccinated versus unvaccinated groups of children. It is well established that the efficacy of the rotavirus vaccine is not the same across all countries \u2014 in countries with high child mortality rates the vaccine shows much lower efficacy.",
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"text": "The chart is from a recent study by Clark et ",
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"text": ", which looked at how the efficacy of live oral rotavirus vaccines changes in different countries following vaccination. The chart shows that in countries with high child mortality rates, not only is the immediate vaccine efficacy lower \u2013 98% in low child mortality countries versus 66% in high child mortality countries \u2013 but also the vaccine efficacy decreases faster in high child mortality countries over time.",
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"text": "Five years after vaccination, the rotavirus vaccine reduces the chances of getting diarrhea by 90% in low child mortality countries and only by 30% in high mortality countries.",
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"text": "In high-income countries, rotavirus vaccination has been shown to reduce the cases of severe rotavirus diarrhea by 91% and hospitalization by 94%. In Eastern Asia and Latin America, the effectiveness rates are lower but still high \u2013 preventing 88% and 80% of severe diarrhea cases, respectively. However, effectiveness in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa is significantly lower, only reducing severe diarrhea in around half of the cases.",
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"text": "It is likely that the gut responses to the oral rotavirus vaccines in children in lower-income countries are different. This may be due to a variety of causes, including ",
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"text": ". Overall, the poor gut response to the live vaccine means the efficacy of the vaccine is reduced. Taking all of the above mentioned points into account, there are several interventions that could increase the benefits of the rotavirus vaccine even further. In addition to increasing the vaccine coverage, improving nutritional health (of both infants and mothers) and improving hygiene and sanitation conditions (to lower the prevalence of damaging pathogens) could have positive effects on the vaccine\u2019s efficacy.",
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1 | 2023-12-28 10:54:36 | 2019-08-22 04:58:27 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LsMaUchbvSkQHfdKgkh8AhGIZnidxjI26dTPD72vTvq36XLy_o-wHvxc1sYLzPJvvJqZ6zCrjwm4y94AA | Diarrhea is the third leading [cause of child mortality](https://ourworldindata.org/what-are-children-dying-from-and-what-can-we-do-about-it) – it claimed [more than half a million](https://ourworldindata.org/what-are-children-dying-from-and-what-can-we-do-about-it) children in 2017. Rotavirus is the leading cause of diarrhea in children – it is estimated that between one-quarter and one-third of all child deaths from diarrhea are the result of rotavirus infection. Countries which have introduced [vaccines](https://ourworldindata.org/vaccination) against rotavirus have seen significant reductions in rotavirus-related cases of diarrhea. Improved coverage and better vaccine efficacy in low-income countries could save even more lives. ## Rotavirus is the leading cause of childhood diarrhea Rotavirus is the [leading cause of diarrheal disease](https://ourworldindata.org/childhood-diarrheal-diseases#what-causes-diarrheal-diseases) in children globally. It's estimated that between one-quarter and one-third of all child deaths from diarrhea are the result of rotavirus infection.1 The _Global Burden of Disease_ study estimated that rotavirus was the cause of 128,500 deaths and was responsible for an estimated 258 million cases of infectious diarrhea among children under-5 in 2016.2 The map shows the global distribution of rotavirus-related child deaths. As we can see, the highest mortality rates occur in the Sub-Saharan region. In terms of total numbers, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo and India have the highest [total number](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/child-deaths-from-rotavirus?tab=map) of rotavirus-related deaths. [Childhood wasting](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-children-with-a-weight-too-low-for-their-height-wasting), access to [clean water](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/population-using-at-least-basic-drinking-water) and [unsafe sanitation](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-with-improved-sanitation-faciltities) are [the major risk factors](https://our… | Rotavirus vaccine - an effective tool that prevents children dying from diarrhea | |
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"text": "Milk is a dietary staple across many countries in the world. But dairy can contribute a lot to the greenhouse gas emissions of our food. In typical EU diets, it accounts for just over one-quarter of the carbon footprint, sometimes as much as one-third.",
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"text": " one-quarter of adults now drink some non-dairy milks (although not always exclusively). It\u2019s even more popular in younger demographics with one-third of 16 to 23-year-olds opting for them.",
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"text": "There is now a range of \u2018plant-based\u2019 milk alternatives available, including soy, oat, almond, rice, and coconut. This raises two common questions: are plant-based milks really better for the environment, and which is best?",
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"text": "In the chart here we compare milks across a number of environmental metrics: land use, greenhouse gas emissions, water use, and eutrophication \u2013 the pollution of ecosystems with excess nutrients. These are compared per liter of milk.",
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"text": "Cow\u2019s milk has significantly higher impacts than the plant-based alternatives across all metrics. It causes around three times as much greenhouse gas emissions; uses around ten times as much land; two to twenty times as much freshwater; and creates much higher levels of eutrophication.",
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"text": "Which of the vegan milks is best? It really depends on the impact we care most about. Almond milk has lower greenhouse gas emissions and uses less land than soy, for example, but requires more water and results in higher eutrophication.",
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"text": "Dairy milk tends to be higher in calories, and importantly, contains more protein. 100ml of cow\u2019s milk ",
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"text": ". The protein in dairy is also a more \u2018complete\u2019 protein source, which means it has the full profile of essential amino acids.",
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"text": "One of the benefits of plant-based milks is that they are often fortified with vitamins and minerals. Vitamin D, for example, is often added. Cow\u2019s milk naturally contains very little vitamin D, although it is possible to buy fortified varieties. Vitamin B",
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"text": "From a nutritional perspective, the replacement of dairy with plant-based milks is unlikely to be a concern for those with a diverse diet, and for those who do not rely on milk as an important source of protein. It is possible to meet these requirements from other foods \u2013 such as a combination of legumes, meat substitutes, and grains. However, for certain demographics \u2013 especially young children, and those on lower incomes with poor dietary diversity \u2013 this might be an inappropriate switch.",
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"text": "The average person in many lower-income countries gets most of their calories from cheap, energy-dense crops like cereals and tubers (like cassava). This can be ",
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1 | 2024-03-01 20:22:39 | 2022-01-19 08:10:35 | 2024-03-01 20:28:30 | listed | ALBJ4LuHveOoIOzoBnZvQqphJbsrq337u3WDcrAnLD2lGF3bo8-z8Dd6Z_TatIycKiNQVVkegU07OZSADOCJ-g | Milk is a dietary staple across many countries in the world. But dairy can contribute a lot to the greenhouse gas emissions of our food. In typical EU diets, it accounts for just over one-quarter of the carbon footprint, sometimes as much as one-third.1 Growing awareness of this means many are looking to plant-based alternatives. In the UK, [surveys suggest](https://www.mintel.com/press-centre/food-and-drink/milking-the-vegan-trend-a-quarter-23-of-brits-use-plant-based-milk) one-quarter of adults now drink some non-dairy milks (although not always exclusively). It’s even more popular in younger demographics with one-third of 16 to 23-year-olds opting for them.2 There is now a range of ‘plant-based’ milk alternatives available, including soy, oat, almond, rice, and coconut. This raises two common questions: are plant-based milks really better for the environment, and which is best? In the chart here we compare milks across a number of environmental metrics: land use, greenhouse gas emissions, water use, and eutrophication – the pollution of ecosystems with excess nutrients. These are compared per liter of milk.3 At the end of this article I address some of the differences in the nutritional quality of these milks, which is important to consider in certain populations. Cow’s milk has significantly higher impacts than the plant-based alternatives across all metrics. It causes around three times as much greenhouse gas emissions; uses around ten times as much land; two to twenty times as much freshwater; and creates much higher levels of eutrophication. If you want to reduce the environmental footprint of your diet, switching to plant-based alternatives is a good option. Which of the vegan milks is best? It really depends on the impact we care most about. Almond milk has lower greenhouse gas emissions and uses less land than soy, for example, but requires more water and results in higher eutrophication. All of the alternatives have a lower impact than dairy, but there is no clear winner on all metrics. <Chart … | Dairy vs. plant-based milk: what are the environmental impacts? | |
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"text": "Bruno Gon\u00e7alves\u2019s Epidemic Modeling 102: All CoVID-19 models are wrong, but some are useful",
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"text": "ICL describes its model as a tool to help countries understand at what stage the country is in its epidemic (e.g., before or after a peak) and how healthcare demand might change in the future under three policy scenarios. These scenarios are designed to provide a counterfactual of what could happen if current interventions were maintained, increased, or relaxed and are therefore not intended to forecast future mortality.",
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"text": " by using an estimated IFR to \u201cback-calculate\u201d how many infections would have been likely over the previous weeks to produce that number of deaths. It uses mobility data \u2013 from ",
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"text": "The model uses several other types of data to simulate transmission and disease progression: mobility, social distancing policies, population density, pneumonia seasonality and death rate, air pollution, altitude, smoking rates, and self-reported contacts and mask use. Details on the sources of these data can be found on the ",
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"text": "The model assumes a baseline, delay-adjusted CFR of 1.4% and that any difference between that and a country\u2019s delay-adjusted CFR is entirely due to under-ascertainment. But many other factors likely play a role, such as the burden on the healthcare system, COVID-19 risk factors in the population, the ages of those infected, and more.",
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"text": "All four models we looked at agree that true infections far outnumber confirmed cases, but they disagree by how much. We now have some insight into these differences: The models all differ to some degree in what they are used for, how they work, the data they are based on, and the assumptions they make.",
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"text": "Making these differences transparent helps us understand how we should think about these models and their estimates. For example, understanding that some models are used for scenario planning and not forecasting (like ICL\u2019s) while others are optimized for forecast accuracy (like Youyang\u2019s) puts their estimates in context. And the models all make different assumptions that each have limitations; we can decide if those limitations are relevant to a given situation.",
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"text": "In the end, though, we still want to have confidence that models can track the pandemic accurately. We can calibrate our confidence in different models by giving their estimates a reality check.",
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"text": "One way to do this is to compare model estimates against some observed \u201cground truth\u201d data. For example, if a model is forecasting the number of deaths four weeks from now, we can wait four weeks and compare the forecast to the deaths that actually occur.",
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"excerpt": "We know that confirmed COVID-19 cases are only a fraction of true infections. How small a fraction though?",
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1 | 2024-01-26 14:25:43 | 2020-08-24 11:00:25 | 2024-01-26 17:22:53 | listed | ALBJ4LvV5LgH-navhick4_5S1qKhC-mTIUkbi08CKn3r1tmX_JREFNvRPCOb-FHIedlGjMItrs95lh2ZPf_HEQ | A key limitation in our understanding of the COVID-19 pandemic is that we do not know the _true_ number of infections. Instead, we only know of infections that have been confirmed by a test – the confirmed cases. But because many infected people never get tested,1 we know that confirmed cases are only a fraction of true infections. How small a fraction though? To answer this question, several research groups have developed epidemiological models of COVID-19. These models use the data we have – confirmed cases and deaths, testing rates, and more – plus a range of assumptions and epidemiological knowledge to estimate true infections and other important metrics. The chart here shows the mean estimates of the true number of daily new infections in the United States from four of the most prominent models.2 For comparison, the number of confirmed cases is also shown. * [Imperial College London (ICL)](http://ourworldindata.org/covid-models#imperial-college-london-icl) * [The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME)](http://ourworldindata.org/covid-models#institute-for-health-metrics-and-evaluation-ihme) * [Youyang Gu (YYG)](http://ourworldindata.org/covid-models#youyang-gu-yyg) * [The London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM)](http://ourworldindata.org/covid-models#london-school-of-hygiene-tropical-medicine-lshtm) <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/daily-new-estimated-infections-of-covid-19"/> Two things are clear from this chart: All four models agree that true infections _far outnumber_ confirmed cases. But the models disagree by how much, and how infections have changed over time. When the number of confirmed cases in the US reached a peak in late July 2020, the IHME and LSHTM models estimated that the true number of infections was about twice as high as confirmed cases, the ICL model estimated it was nearly three times as high, and Youyang Gu's model estimated it was more than _six times_ as high. Back in March the estimated discrepancy between confirmed cases and true infectio… | How epidemiological models of COVID-19 help us estimate the true number of infections | |
| 1zi0ZsRO1gP-IzBpCs0D6mTVcvo65Vohwyi7zZd8ZAOA | the-world-has-become-more-resilient-to-disasters-but-investment-is-needed-to-save-more-lives | article | {
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"text": "Single events that caused over a million deaths were not rare in the first half of the 20th century. These events were mostly floods or droughts and were often linked to agricultural shocks that caused hunger and starvation. There are many similar examples in humanity\u2019s history before the year 1900. A strong El-Ni\u00f1o weather event in the 1870s led to ",
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"text": "To be clear, deaths haven\u2019t declined so steeply because disasters are becoming less frequent or intense. This data also doesn\u2019t mean climate change isn\u2019t happening or isn\u2019t worsening weather events. The main reason that fewer people are dying is that we\u2019ve gotten better at protecting ourselves and each other.",
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"text": " a different disaster database \u2014 Munich RE\u2019s NatCatSERVICE \u2014 and found a large reduction in global vulnerability to disasters from the 1980s to 2010s.",
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"text": ": a long list of improvements have made communities less vulnerable. Our agricultural systems are more productive and recover from damaging events. Political systems allow for national and international support before or after a hazard strikes. People live in better buildings. Some have heating or air conditioning to protect them from extreme temperatures.",
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"text": " determine is how much worse they get in a changing climate. Hazards at 3\u00b0C of warming will be worse than at 2\u00b0C, which will be worse than at 1.5\u00b0C. We need to reduce our ",
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"text": " by disasters, which includes those left homeless, injured, or requiring assistance. People in lower-income countries are much more vulnerable to disasters such as drought, which affects many more people. Poorer infrastructure also means they\u2019re slower to respond and recover from disasters, leaving more people affected.",
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"text": "One way to build more resilient communities is to learn from other countries, like Bangladesh, that have saved many lives with the right preparation and response. The problem is that we tend to see the large and fatal events where things have gone wrong and miss the small events where people were protected. Disasters hit the news; averted ones don\u2019t.",
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"text": ": \u201cWe frequently see headlines about disasters. But where are the headlines covering the good news of lives saved and damage averted when disasters do not happen?\u201d",
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1 | 2024-04-16 10:56:51 | 2024-05-20 08:21:34 | 2024-05-13 11:12:32 | listed | ALBJ4LusJpxW2CuE7tdnFW1JRIuP30gfT99Lpkq5XWFd6Ht4TINNbO-uAcx3EQaXg0Qm5P2-NIzTflPvmX8OfQ | In 1970, more than 300,000 people died when [a strong cyclone](https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/documents/3537/JBA-9s9-04-Sammonds-etal.pdf) hit the coast of Bangladesh.1 In 1985, another storm caused 15,000 deaths. Just six years later, another killed 140,000. Fast-forward to 2020. Bangladesh was hit by cyclone Amphan, one of the strongest storms on record in the Bay of Bengal. The death toll was 26 — barely visible on the chart below, compared to these very deadly disasters That’s 26 too many deaths, and the cyclone also caused huge amounts of damage: millions of people were displaced, and there were large economic losses. But tens — possibly hundreds — of thousands of lives were saved through early warnings, evacuations, and increased resilience. People in Bangladesh are much better protected from disasters than they were a few decades ago. This development is part of a longer-term and widespread success in reducing humanity’s vulnerability to storms, floods, earthquakes, and other hazards. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/natural-disasters?time=1968..latest&facet=none&hideControls=true&Disaster+Type=Storms&Impact=Deaths&Timespan=Annual&Per+capita=false&country=~BGD&tab=chart"/> # The world has become more resilient to disasters Bangladesh is not an isolated example. We can observe long-term improvements in the resilience of the world as a whole. Here, I will look at data published by the International Disaster Database, [EM-DAT](https://www.emdat.be/), which stretches back to 1900. In the chart below, I’ve shown the number of deaths from disasters, given as the _decadal_ average. This is helpful as there is a lot of volatility in disasters from year to year.2 You can also explore this data [annually](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/natural-disasters?time=1900..latest&facet=none&Disaster+Type=All+disasters&Impact=Deaths&Timespan=Annual&Per+capita=false&country=~OWID_WRL). The number of people killed in disasters has fallen a lot over the last century. That’s despite there being… | The world has become more resilient to disasters, but investment is needed to save more lives | |
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1 | 2023-07-18 19:45:54 | 2016-06-12 21:46:00 | 2023-12-28 16:31:13 | unlisted | ALBJ4LutxW9ONrHfjeBjtyE0guN6UZsznQw4-e91WRXf3Hb89U2Jnb4iDuyh0Wve179DLVNLWiqwgeIL3iqWXQ | Human rights are rights that all people have, regardless of their country, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, or any other trait. Among others, this includes: physical integrity rights, such as not being killed or tortured; civil rights, such as practicing their religion and moving freely in their country; and political rights, such as freedoms of speech and association. The protection of these rights allows people to live the lives they want and to thrive in them. Human rights have become much more protected, but this varies a lot between countries. And not everyone enjoys the same protections: people are often marginalized because of their gender, sexuality, or ethnicity. On this page, you can find data, visualizations, and writing on how the protection of human rights has changed over time, how it differs across countries, and how it varies between people of different genders, sexualities, and ethnicities. We have additional topic pages related to people’s economic and social rights, such as on [food](https://ourworldindata.org/hunger-and-undernourishment), [health](https://ourworldindata.org/health-meta), and [education](https://ourworldindata.org/global-education). ## Key Insights on Human Rights ### Human rights have become much more protected around the world Human rights are much better protected than they were one or two hundred years ago. In the late 18th century, human rights were poorly protected. In many countries, people’s [physical integrity](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/physical-integrity-rights-vdem?tab=chart&country=~OWID_WRL) and [private](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/private-civil-liberties?tab=chart&country=~OWID_WRL) and [political](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/political-civil-liberties?tab=chart&country=~OWID_WRL) civil liberties were not respected by their governments. The chart shows — based on data from Varieties of Democracy — that countries received an average score of only 0.3, on a scale from 0 to 1 (most rights). Importantly, this early data does not include man… | Human Rights | |
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1 | 2024-06-12 12:36:38 | 2023-01-18 13:54:15 | 2024-06-12 12:44:28 | unlisted | ALBJ4LtIZSVTtC3bv8RMnnh2eetzlEs8ZprydFBoy-NOFGAXaSDwO7iZLUYiuiT16-9wiuW-6YiMx1toXW596Q | Research and development underpin nearly all the transformative changes we see on Our World in Data. Cures for diseases, [vaccines](http://ourworldindata.org/vaccination), and techniques to prevent infection have helped us survive [beyond childhood](http://ourworldindata.org/child-mortality) and live much [longer lives](http://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy). Understanding hygiene, [water, and sanitation](http://ourworldindata.org/clean-water-sanitation) has saved countless lives from preventable diseases. Electricity, artificial light, transport, and other [energy technologies](http://ourworldindata.org/energy) have transformed our lives. Agricultural research has broken deadlocks in [crop yields](http://ourworldindata.org/crop-yields) and allowed us to produce enough food for eight billion people. Even beyond the long list of technological advances, research into effective political and economic systems, human rights, and social sciences have reshaped societies worldwide. More research is needed to address our largest problems – old and new. We will need innovations in clean energy to tackle climate change, agriculture to feed a growing population, and developments in medical research to tackle existing and prevent new diseases. Research is vital to address emerging and ongoing risks such as [artificial intelligence](http://ourworldindata.org/artificial-intelligence) and [nuclear weapons](http://ourworldindata.org/nuclear-weapons). This page contains all of our data, visualizations, and writing on research, development, and innovation. ## Research & Writing * https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Vuyi9thca39s45htjDn6QSIgygZVcWuPca1y2pyVReU/edit ,* https://docs.google.com/document/d/1oh0rTB9nZPq00zIJVaHzGC87AiJcjsV8DmYI3eDXFr8/edit ,* https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yH7P70MBCWsNIx-WQPmZnVqXL4Mrpxrp6J1Jpa6qBko/edit ,* https://docs.google.com/document/d/1WGJaY95A4hVjybBPzHOA80iGygKUKcgx0kSs-G_b7aA/edit ,* https://docs.google.com/document/d/15hEchniGhmgO8mLsSi5mXek2a9na-Mo1VFtrsWcQw1g/edit ,* https://do… | Research and Development | |
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1 | 2024-04-29 11:11:44 | 2024-06-13 05:47:48 | 2024-06-13 05:46:39 | unlisted | ALBJ4Ls3o6_pt-_QbUwPmzi4harCX-buy51snQPC5j7Of6q3LqUNfhHtv2PBeiqEnWeWIBeP7tvqRmBhKRTt8w | <Image filename="solar-learning-curve-desktop.png"/> One of the most transformative changes in technology over the last few decades has been the massive drop in the cost of clean energy. Solar photovoltaic [costs have fallen](https://ourworldindata.org/cheap-renewables-growth) by 90% in the last decade, onshore wind by 70%, and batteries [by more than](https://ourworldindata.org/battery-price-decline) 90%. These technologies have followed a “learning curve” called [Wright’s Law](https://ourworldindata.org/learning-curve). This states that the cost of technology falls consistently as the cumulative production of that technology increases. The chart shows the perfect example of this for solar power. This data comes from the [International Renewable Agency](https://www.irena.org/Publications/2023/Aug/Renewable-Power-Generation-Costs-in-2022), [Greg Nemet](https://pcdb.santafe.edu/graph.php?curve=158), and [Doyne Farmer & François Lafond](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048733315001699). On the horizontal axis, we have the cumulative installed capacity of solar panels, and on the vertical axis, the cost. Both are measured on logarithmic scales, and the trend follows a straight line. That means the fall in cost has been _exponential_. Costs have fallen by around 20% every time the global cumulative capacity doubles. Over four decades, solar power has transformed from one of the most expensive electricity sources to [the cheapest](https://www.carbonbrief.org/solar-is-now-cheapest-electricity-in-history-confirms-iea/) in many countries. [Read more from my colleague, Max Roser, on learning curves](https://ourworldindata.org/learning-curve) → | Solar panel prices have fallen by around 20% every time global capacity doubled | |
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In 2021, 18% of the world’s [primary energy](https://ourworldindata.org/energy-substitution-method) came from low-carbon sources. Low-carbon energy is energy from nuclear and renewables. How has this share changed? Have we made progress on decarbonizing the global energy supply? In the line chart we see how the share of global energy that comes from low-carbon sources has changed over time. It more than doubled in the 20 years from 1970 to 1990: increasing from 6% to 13%. At this point, progress appeared to stall for several decades, but is now rising again. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/low-carbon-share-energy?tab=chart&country=~OWID_WRL"/> ## Renewables have grown strongly, but a lot of this has simply offset a decline in nuclear To understand the different rates at which we’ve made progress on decarbonization, it’s useful to break it down into its two components: nuclear energy and renewables. This is shown in the chart. First, we see why we made progress in the 1970s and 80s: nuclear energy was growing quickly, and renewables – mainly hydropower – were also growing, albeit slowly. But throughout the 1990s we see that neither nuclear or renewables made much progress; we were producing more of each source [in absolute terms](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/energy?tab=chart&facet=none&country=~OWID_WRL&Total+or+Breakdown=Select+a+source&Select+a+source=Low-carbon&Energy+or+Electricity=Primary+energy&Metric=Annual+consumption), but this growth could not outpace the [increased demand for energy](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/energy?tab=chart&facet=none&country=~OWID_WRL&Total+or+Breakdown=Total&Select+a+source=Low-carbon&Energy+or+Electricity=Primary+energy&Metric=Annual+consumption) overall. Low-carbon energy’s _share_ didn’t increase much. What we see in the first decade of the 2000s is a complete divergence of these sources. Renewables went up. Nuclear went down. Countries stopped investing in new nuclear plants; and some closed down. In absolute terms the [total amount](http… | Is the world making progress in decarbonizing energy? |
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1 | 2023-06-27 19:58:20 | 2023-07-07 08:31:36 | 2024-01-03 10:47:49 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lvuit6LvU1FIJwrepvSICFdIbHY1_ES0s6xSOxbQFlzUq5s-2xqmHHSB_AtRQpswr30QwhLmmotMwuGMQ | How are incomes and wealth distributed between people? Both within countries and across the world as a whole? On this page, you can find all our data, visualizations, and writing relating to economic inequality. This evidence shows us that inequality in many countries is very high and, in many cases, has been on the rise. Global economic inequality is vast and compounded by [overlapping inequalities](https://docs.google.com/document/d/15du6zm00Ll6DtJWlhu4o_lZgb72RKFyd43tflYSKIVA/edit) in health, education, and many other dimensions. But economic inequality is not rising everywhere. Within many countries, it has fallen or remained stable. And global inequality – after two centuries of increase – is [now falling](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1q1sbAEqbeOgit1Nzc_mEoHLqEzXs5U4ONgHgI6YQN7k/edit) too. The large differences we see across countries and over time are crucial. They show us that high and rising inequality is not inevitable, and that the extent of inequality today is something that we can change. # Explore Data on Economic Inequality <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/inequality?time=2019&facet=none&country=CHL~ZAF~USA~FRA~CHN~BRA&Data=World+Inequality+Database+%28Incomes+before+tax%29&Indicator=Gini+coefficient"/> ## About this data This data explorer provides a range of inequality indicators measured according to two different definitions of income obtained from different sources. * Data from the World Inequality Database relates to inequality before taxes and benefits. * Data from the World Bank relates to either income after taxes and benefits or consumption, depending on the country and year. Further information about the definitions and methods behind this data can be found in the article below, where you can also explore and compare a much broader range of indicators from different sources: ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1rEhPkFIeAvIQeOHj69HHlHLd1MygsBX7jb79MnpFJmI/edit ## Related research and writing * https://docs.google.com/document/d/1M2S6… | Economic Inequality | |
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"text": "Research suggests that if everyone shifted to a plant-based diet we would reduce global land use for agriculture by 75%. This large reduction of agricultural land use would be possible thanks to a reduction in land used for grazing and a smaller need for land to grow crops. The research also shows that cutting out beef and dairy (by substituting chicken, eggs, fish or plant-based food) has a ",
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"text": " of the world\u2019s ice- and desert-free land is used for agriculture. Most of this is for raising livestock \u2013 the land requirements of meat and dairy production are equivalent to an area the size of the Americas, spanning all the way from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego.",
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"text": "The land use of livestock is so large because it takes around 100 times as much land to produce a kilocalorie of beef or lamb versus plant-based alternatives. This is shown in the chart.",
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"text": "This raises the question of whether we could, or should, stop using it for agriculture at all. We could let natural vegetation and ecosystems return to these lands, with large benefits for biodiversity and carbon sequestration.",
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"text": "One concern is whether we would be able to grow enough food for everyone on the cropland that is left. The research suggests that it\u2019s possible to feed everyone in the world a nutritious diet on existing croplands, but only if we saw a widespread shift towards plant-based diets.",
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"text": "Let\u2019s look at why this is not the case. In the chart here we see the amount of agricultural land the world would need to provide food for everyone. This comes from the work of Joseph Poore and Thomas Nemecek, the largest meta-analysis of global food systems to date.",
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"text": "This has a large impact on how land requirements change as we shift towards a more plant-based diet. If the world population ate less meat and dairy we would be eating more crops. The consequence \u2013 as the following bar chart shows \u2013 would be that the \u2018human food\u2019 component of cropland would increase while the land area used for animal feed would shrink.",
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"text": " When you feed an animal, not all of this energy goes into producing additional meat, milk or eggs. Most is used to simply keep the animal alive. This is exactly the same for us: most of the calories we eat are used to keep us alive and maintain our body weight. It\u2019s only when we eat in excess that we gain weight.",
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1 | 2024-02-22 11:18:19 | 2021-03-04 12:00:00 | 2024-02-28 12:38:35 | listed | ALBJ4Lv1PyJly6kAybkVEcV6dI-aAvakSqKM7n3VRW7hS6EVIs7Qg67U97SfGYiipoRKi4COeGo0sPbXthQcAg | <Callout title="Summary"/> The expansion of land for agriculture is the leading [driver of deforestation](https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation) and biodiversity loss. [Half](https://ourworldindata.org/global-land-for-agriculture) of the world’s ice- and desert-free land is used for agriculture. Most of this is for raising livestock – the land requirements of meat and dairy production are equivalent to an area the size of the Americas, spanning all the way from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. The land use of livestock is so large because it takes around 100 times as much land to produce a kilocalorie of beef or lamb versus plant-based alternatives. This is shown in the chart.1 The same is [also true for protein](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/land-use-protein-poore) – it takes almost 100 times as much land to produce a gram of protein from beef or lamb, versus peas or tofu. Of course the _type_ of land used to raise cows or sheep is not the same as cropland for cereals, potatoes or beans. Livestock can be raised on pasture grasslands, or on steep hills where it is not possible to grow crops. Two-thirds of pastures are unsuitable for growing crops.2 This raises the question of whether we could, or should, stop using it for agriculture at all. We could let natural vegetation and ecosystems return to these lands, with large benefits for biodiversity and carbon sequestration.3 In an upcoming article we will look at the carbon opportunity costs of using land for agriculture. One concern is whether we would be able to grow enough food for everyone on the cropland that is left. The research suggests that it’s possible to feed everyone in the world a nutritious diet on existing croplands, but only if we saw a widespread shift towards plant-based diets. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/land-use-kcal-poore"/> ##### Related charts ### Land use of foods per 100 grams of protein https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/land-use-protein-poore ### Land use of foods per kilogram https://ourworl… | If the world adopted a plant-based diet, we would reduce global agricultural land use from 4 to 1 billion hectares | |
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"slug": "undefined-the-price-of-electricity-from-the-long-standing-sources-fossil-fuels-and-nuclear-power",
"text": "The price of electricity from the long-standing sources: fossil fuels and nuclear power",
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"text": "Do electricity prices follow learning curves?",
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"text": "Fossil fuels dominate the global power supply because until very recently electricity from fossil fuels was far cheaper than electricity from renewables. This has dramatically changed within the last decade. In most places in the world power from new renewables is now cheaper than power from new fossil fuels.",
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"text": "The fundamental driver of this change is that renewable energy technologies follow learning curves, which means that with each doubling of the cumulative installed capacity their price declines by the same fraction. The price of electricity from fossil fuel sources however does not follow learning curves so that we should expect that the price difference between expensive fossil fuels and cheap renewables will become even larger in the future.",
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"text": "This is an argument for large investments into scaling up renewable technologies now. Increasing installed capacity has the extremely important positive consequence that it drives down the price and thereby makes renewable energy sources more attractive, earlier. In the coming years most of the additional demand for new electricity will come from low- and middle-income countries; we have the opportunity now to ensure that much of the new power supply will be provided by low-carbon sources.",
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"text": " of the world\u2019s energy production and as the chart below shows they have very large negative side effects. The bars to the left show the number of deaths and the bars on the right compare the greenhouse gas emissions. My colleague Hannah Ritchie explains the data in this chart in detail in her post ",
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"text": "To make comparisons on a consistent basis, energy prices are expressed in \u2018levelized costs of energy\u2019 (LCOE). You can think of LCOE from the perspective of someone who is considering building a power plant. If you are in that situation then the LCOE is the answer to the following question: What would be the minimum price that my customers would need to pay so that the power plant would break even over its lifetime?",
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"text": "What you see in the chart is that within the last 10 years the price of electricity from nuclear became more expensive, gas power became less expensive, and the price of coal power \u2013 the world\u2019s largest source of electricity \u2013 stayed almost the same. Later we will see what is behind these price changes.",
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"text": "Look at the change in solar and wind energy in recent years. Just 10 years ago it wasn\u2019t even close: it was much cheaper to build a new power plant that burns fossil fuels than to build a new solar photovoltaic (PV) or wind plant. Wind was 22%, and solar 223% more expensive than coal.",
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"text": "It\u2019s hard to overstate what a rare achievement these rapid price changes represent. Imagine if some other good had fallen in price as rapidly as renewable electricity: Imagine you\u2019d found a great place to live back in 2009 and at the time you thought it\u2019d be worth paying $3590 in rent for it. If housing had then seen the price decline that we\u2019ve seen for solar it would have meant that by 2019 you\u2019d pay just $400 for the same place.",
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"text": "I emphasized that it is the relative price that matters for the decision of which type of power plants are built. Did the price decline of renewables matter for the decisions of actual power plant builders in recent years? Yes it did. As you see in ",
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"text": ", wind and solar energy were scaled up rapidly in recent years; in 2019 renewables accounted for 72% of all new capacity additions worldwide.",
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"text": [
{
"text": "Why is this happening? Learning curves and the price of solar photovoltaics modules",
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"level": 2,
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"text": "How can this be? Why do we see the cost of renewable energy decline so very fast?",
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"text": "The costs of fossil fuels and nuclear power depend largely on two factors, the price of the fuel that they burn and the power plant\u2019s operating costs.",
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"url": "#note-9",
"children": [
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"text": "9",
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"text": " Renewable energy plants are different: their operating costs are comparatively low and they don\u2019t have to pay for any fuel; their fuel doesn\u2019t have to be dug out of the ground, their fuel \u2013 the wind and sunlight \u2013 comes to them. What is determining the cost of renewable power is the cost of the power plant, the cost of ",
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{
"children": [
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"text": "the technology itself",
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"text": ".",
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"text": "To understand why solar ",
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"text": "power",
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"text": " got so cheap we have to understand why solar ",
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"text": "technology",
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"text": " got cheap. For this, let\u2019s go back in time for a moment.",
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"text": "The first price point for usable solar technology that I can find is from the year 1956. At that time the cost of just one watt of solar photovoltaic capacity was $1,865 (adjusted for inflation and in 2019 prices).",
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"url": "#note-10",
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"text": "10",
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"text": " One watt isn\u2019t much. Today one single solar panel of the type homeowners put on their roofs produces around 320 watts of power.",
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"url": "#note-11",
"children": [
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"text": "11",
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"text": " This means that at the price of 1956 one of today\u2019s solar modules would cost $596,800.",
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"url": "#note-12",
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"text": "12",
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"text": "At this price \u2013 more than half a million dollars for a single panel \u2013 solar was obviously hopelessly uncompetitive with fossil fuels.",
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"text": "Then why didn\u2019t the history of solar technology end right there?",
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"text": "There are two reasons why instead of dying, solar has developed to become the world\u2019s cheapest source of electricity today.",
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"text": "Even at the very high price, solar technology did find a use. It is a technology that literally came from outer space. The very first practical use of solar power was to supply electricity for a satellite, the Vanguard I satellite in 1958. It was in this high-tech niche where someone was willing to pay for solar technology even at that extremely high price.",
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"text": "The second important reason is that the price of solar modules declined when more of them were produced. More production gave us the chance to learn how to improve the production process: a classic case of learning-by-doing. The initial demand in the high-tech sector meant that some solar technology was produced and this initial production started a virtuous cycle of increasing demand and falling prices.",
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"text": "The visualization shows this mechanism. To satisfy increasing demand more solar modules get deployed, which leads to falling prices; at those lower prices the technology becomes cost-effective in new applications, which in turn means that demand increases. In this positive feedback loop solar technology has powered itself forward ever since its early days in outer space.",
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"text": "A short history of solar: From outer space to the cheapest source of energy on earth",
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"text": "During the 1960s the main application of solar remained in satellites. But the virtuous cycle was set in motion and this meant that slowly, but steadily, the price of solar modules declined.",
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"text": "With falling prices the technology came down from space to our planet. The first terrestrial applications in the 1970s were in remote locations where the connection to the wider electrical grid is costly \u2013 lighthouses, remote railroad crossings, or the refrigeration of ",
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"text": "vaccines",
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"text": ".",
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"url": "#note-13",
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"text": "13",
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"text": "The data point for 1976 in the top left corner of the chart shows the state of solar technology at the time.",
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"text": "Back then the price of a solar module, adjusted for inflation, was US-$106 per watt. And as you see on the bottom axis, global installed solar PV capacity was only 0.3 megawatts. Relative to 1956 this was already a price decline of 94%, but relative to the world\u2019s energy demand solar was still very expensive and therefore very small: a capacity of 0.3 megawatts is enough to provide electricity for about 20 people per year.",
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"text": "The time-series in the chart shows how the price of solar modules changed from then until now. The so-called \u2018learning effect\u2019 in solar technology is incredibly strong: while the installed capacity increased exponentially, the price of solar modules ",
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"text": "declinedexponentially",
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"text": ". The fact that both metrics changed exponentially can be nicely seen in this chart because both axes are logarithmic. On a logarithmic axis a measure that declines exponentially ",
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"url": "https://blog.datawrapper.de/weeklychart-logscale/",
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"text": "follows a straight line",
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"text": "This straight line that represents the relationship between ",
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"text": "\u2013 measured as the cumulative installed capacity of the technology \u2013 and the ",
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"text": " of that technology is called the ",
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"text": " of that technology. The relative price decline associated with each doubling of experience is the ",
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"text": "This is the virtuous cycle in action. More deployment means falling prices, which means more deployment. With solar technology it was for a long time the case that its increased deployment was made possible through government subsidies and mandates \u2013 arguably the most positive effect of these policies is that they too drove down the price of these new technologies along the learning curve. Paying for renewables at a high price point earlier allows everyone to pay less for them later.",
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"text": "That more production leads to falling prices is not surprising \u2013 such \u2018economies of scale\u2019 are found in many corners of manufacturing. If you are already making one pizza, it isn\u2019t that much extra work to make a second one.",
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"text": "What is truly mind blowing about solar technology is how very strong this effect is: For more than four decades each doubling of global cumulative capacity was associated with the same relative decline in prices.",
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"text": "The advances that made this price reduction possible span the entire production process of solar modules:",
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{
"url": "#note-15",
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"children": [
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"text": "15",
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"text": " larger, more efficient factories are producing the modules; R&D efforts increase; technological advances increase the efficiency of the panels; engineering advances improve the production processes of the silicon ingots and wafers; the mining and processing of the raw materials increases in scale and becomes cheaper; operational experience accumulates; the modules are more durable and live longer; market competition ensures that profits are low; and capital costs for the production decline. It is a myriad of small improvements across a large collective process that drives this continuous price decline.",
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"text": "The learning rate of solar PV modules is 20.2%.",
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"url": "#note-16",
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"text": "16",
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"text": " With each doubling of the installed cumulative capacity the price of solar modules declines by 20.2%.",
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"url": "#note-17",
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"text": " The high learning rate meant that the core technology of solar electricity declined rapidly. The price of solar modules declined from $106 to $0.38 per watt. A decline of 99.6%.",
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"text": "To get our expectations for the future right we ought to pay a lot of attention to those technologies that follow learning curves. Initially we might only find them on a high-tech satellite out in space, but the future belongs to them. Renewable energy sources are not the only case; the most well-known case is the computer and the corresponding historical development there is \u2018Moore\u2019s Law\u2019. If you are interested in getting your expectations about the future right, you are interested in how Moore\u2019s Law helps us to see the future of technological development, and you want to know about whether it is indeed the case that scaled-up production ",
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"text": "declining prices you can read the following information box that takes a deeper look at it.",
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"text": "How Moore\u2019s Law and Wright\u2019s Law can help us to get our expectations for the future right",
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"text": "Predicting the future: The laws of Gordon Moore and Theodore Paul Wright",
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"text": "Solar modules are not the only technology where we see exponential progress. The case of exponential technological change that everyone knows of is Moore\u2019s law \u2013 the observation of Intel\u2019s co-founder Gordon Moore who noticed that the number of transistors on microprocessors doubled every two years. He first made this observation back in 1965 and until today this extraordinarily fast rate of technological progress still applies.",
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"text": "Integrated circuits are the fundamental technology of computers and Moore\u2019s law is what has driven the exponential progress in computers in recent decades \u2013 computers became rapidly cheaper, more energy efficient, and faster.",
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"text": "As you might have noticed Moore\u2019s law is not stated in the same way that I\u2019ve been looking at solar module prices. Moore\u2019s law describes technological change as a function of ",
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"text": "time; for solar,",
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"text": " I am looking at price changes as a function of ",
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"text": " \u2013 measured as the total amount of solar modules that were ever installed. This relationship, that each doubling in experience leads to the same relative decline in prices, was discovered much earlier than Moore\u2019s law, by aerospace engineer Theodore Paul Wright in 1936.",
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"text": " After him it is called ",
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"text": ". Moore\u2019s observation for the progress in computing technology can be seen as a special case of Wright\u2019s Law.",
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"text": "Solar panels and computer chips are not the only technologies that follow his law. Have a look at ",
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"text": "our visualization",
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"text": " of the price declines of 66 different technologies and the research referenced in the footnote",
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"text": "How do we know that increasing experience is causing lower prices? After all it could be the other way around \u2013 production only increases after costs have fallen. In most settings this is difficult to disentangle empirically, but researchers Fran\u00e7ois Lafond, Diana Greenwald, and Doyne Farmer found an instance where this question can be answered. In their paper \u2018Can Stimulating Demand Drive Costs Down?\u2019, they study the price changes at a time when reverse causality can be ruled out, when demand was clearly not the consequence of lower prices: the demand for military technology in the Second World War.",
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"text": " Their finding is that for technologies for which Wright\u2019s Law applies, it is mostly the cumulative experience that determines the price. As demand for weapons grew production experience increased sharply and prices declined. When the war was over and demand shrank, the price decline reverted back to a slower rate. This is suggesting that it is really the cumulative experience that is driving the price decline that we are interested in.",
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"text": "Wright\u2019s Law helps us to get our expectations for the future right",
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"text": "If you want to know what the future looks like one of the most useful questions to ask is which technologies follow Wright\u2019s Law and which do not.",
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"text": "Most technologies obviously do not follow Wright\u2019s Law \u2013 the prices of bicycles, fridges, or coal power plants do not decline exponentially as we produce more of them. But those which do follow Wright\u2019s Law \u2013 like computers, solar PV, and batteries \u2013 are the ones to look out for. They might initially only be found in very niche applications, but a few decades later they are everywhere.",
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"text": "If you are unaware that technology follows Wright\u2019s Law you can get your predictions very wrong. At the dawn of the computer age in 1943 IBM president Thomas Watson famously said \"I think there is a world market for maybe five computers.\"",
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"url": "#note-22",
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"text": " At the price point of computers at the time that was perhaps perfectly true, but what he didn\u2019t foresee was how rapidly the price of computers would fall. From its initial niche when there was perhaps truly only demand for five computers they expanded to more and more applications and the virtuous cycle meant that the price of computers declined further and further. The exponential progress of computers expanded their use from a tiny niche to the defining technology of our time.",
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"text": "Solar modules are on the same trajectory, as we\u2019ve seen before. At the price of solar modules in the 1950s it would have sounded quite reasonable to say, \u201cI think there is a world market for maybe five solar modules.\u201d But as a prediction for the future this statement too would have been ridiculously wrong.",
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"text": "To get our expectations about the future right we are well advised to take the exponential change of Wright\u2019s Law seriously. My colleagues Doyne Farmer, Fran\u00e7ois Lafond, Penny Mealy, Rupert Way, Matt Ives, Linus Mattauch, Cameron Hepburn and others have done important pioneering work in this field. A central paper of their work is Farmer\u2019s and Lafond\u2019s \u2018How predictable is technological progress?\u2019 from 2016.",
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"url": "#note-23",
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"text": " The focus of this research paper is the price of solar modules so that we avoid repeating Watson\u2019s mistake for solar technology. They lay out in detail what I discussed here: how solar modules decline in price, how demand is driving this change, and how we can learn about the future by relying on these insights.",
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"text": "To get our expectations for the future right we ought to pay attention to those technologies that follow Wright\u2019s law. Initially we might only find them on a high-tech satellite out in space, but the future belongs to them.",
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"text": "Do electricity prices follow learning curves?",
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"text": "Solar PV modules might very well follow a rapidly declining learning curve, but solar modules themselves are not what we want. We want the electricity that they produce. Does the price of solar ",
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"text": "The visualization shows the relevant data.",
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"url": "#note-24",
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"children": [
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"text": "24",
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"text": " On the vertical axis you see again the LCOE price for electricity and on the horizontal axis you now find the cumulative installed capacity.",
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{
"url": "#note-25",
"children": [
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"children": [
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"text": "25",
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],
"spanType": "span-superscript"
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"text": " As in the solar module chart, both variables are plotted on logarithmic scales so that the line on the charts represents the learning rate for these technologies.",
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"text": "In bright orange you see the development for the price of power from solar PV over the last decade. The learning curve relationship that we saw for the price of solar ",
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"text": "modules",
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"text": " also holds for the price of ",
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"text": "electricity",
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"text": ". The learning rate is actually even faster: At each doubling of installed solar capacity the price of solar electricity declined by 36% \u2013 compared to 20% for solar modules.",
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"text": "Wind power \u2013 shown in blue \u2013 also follows a learning curve. The onshore wind industry achieved a learning rate of 23%. Every doubling of capacity was associated with a price decline of almost a quarter.",
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"text": "Offshore wind had a learning rate of 10% and is still relatively expensive \u2013 only 25% cheaper than nuclear and a bit more expensive than coal. But for two reasons experts expect the power from offshore wind to become very cheap in the coming years, larger wind turbine sizes and the fact that the consistent winds out on the sea allows higher load factors.",
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"url": "#note-26",
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"text": " The obvious similarity of onshore and offshore wind also means that learning effects in one industry can be transferred to the other.",
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"text": "Fossil fuels and nuclear do not follow learning curves",
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"text": "Electricity generation from renewables is getting rapidly cheaper. What about its competitors? Let\u2019s look first at coal.",
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"text": "Why is electricity from coal not getting cheaper?",
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"text": "Coal, the world\u2019s largest source of electricity, is also included in the chart. The global price of electricity from new coal (LCOE) declined from $111 to $109. While solar got 89% cheaper and wind 70%, the price of electricity from coal declined by merely 2%.",
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"text": "The stagnating price of coal power in the last decade is not unusual. The historical development of the price of coal power is nowhere close to what we\u2019ve been seeing for renewable power. Neither the price of the coal nor the price of the coal plants followed a learning curve, the prices didn\u2019t even decline over the long run.",
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"text": "Electricity from coal was historically cheap and still is, but it is not getting cheaper. There are two reasons we shouldn\u2019t expect this to change much in the future:",
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"text": "First, there is little room for improving the efficiency of coal power plants substantially. Typical plants have efficiencies of around 33%, while the most efficient ones today reach 47%.",
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"url": "#note-28",
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"text": " Even a dramatic, unprecedented improvement from an efficiency of one-third to two-thirds would only correspond to the progress that solar PV modules make every 7.5 years.",
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"url": "#note-29",
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"text": "Second, the price of electricity from all fossil fuel is not only determined by the technology but to a significant extent by the cost of the fuel itself. The cost of coal that the power plant burns makes up about 40% of total costs.",
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"text": "This means that for all non-renewable power plants which have these fuel costs there is a hard lower bound to how much the cost of their electricity can possibly decrease. Even if the price for constructing the power plant would decline, the price of the fuel means that there is a floor below which the price of electricity cannot pass.",
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"text": "For these reasons it should not be surprising that coal power does not follow a learning curve.",
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"text": "Electricity from gas: should we expect that the price continues to fall?",
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"text": "Electricity from gas, the second largest fossil fuel source, did become cheaper over the last decade.",
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"url": "#note-31",
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"text": " As we saw above, electricity from combined cycle gas plants declined by 32% to a global average cost of $56 per MWh.",
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"text": "The costs of building a gas plant declined during some periods in the last 70 years, as Rubin et al (2015) show.",
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"text": " But the main reason the price of ",
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"text": "declined over the last decade is that the price of gas itself happened to decline over this particular period. After a peak in 2008 the price of gas declined steeply. The increased supply from fracking is one key reason. This price decline of gas, however, is not part of a long-run development. The price of gas today is ",
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"text": " than two or three decades ago.",
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"text": "For the same reasons as discussed for coal \u2013 limited learning and fuel costs as a floor \u2013 we should therefore not expect the price of electricity from gas to decline significantly over the coming decades and we should certainly not expect a learning curve effect similar to what we are seeing for renewables.",
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"text": "Why did nuclear power get more expensive? What can reverse that trend?",
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"text": "For nuclear power you see the data since 2009 in the chart. Nuclear power has increased in price.",
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"text": "This increase is part of a longer term trend. In many places building a power plant has become more expensive as the studies reviewed in Rubin et al (2015) document.",
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"text": " This is of course very unfortunate, since nuclear is both a low-carbon source of electricity and one of the safest sources of electricity as we have seen in the very first chart.",
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"text": "One reason for rising prices is increased regulation for nuclear power, which has the important benefit of increased safety. A second reason is that the world has not built many nuclear power plants in recent years so that supply chains are small, uncompetitive, and are not benefiting from economies of scale.",
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"text": "Both of these reasons explain why the ",
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"text": " LCOE price has gone up. But for nuclear there are large differences in price trends between countries: Prices and construction times have increased significantly in the US and the UK, while France and South Korea were at least able to keep prices and construction times constant.",
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"text": "Michel Berth\u00e9lemy and Lina Escobar Rangel (2015) explain that those countries that were able to avoid price surges are countries that do not stand out in regulating nuclear power less, but in ",
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"text": " the construction of reactors more.",
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"text": " Learning, after all, means transferring the knowledge gathered in one instance to another. No repetition, no learning.",
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"text": "This is in sharp contrast with renewables in particular. While nuclear technology is not very standardized and gets build very rarely, solar PV modules and wind plants are the exact opposite, very standardized and extremely often built.",
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"text": "One hope is that a new boom in nuclear power and increased standardization of the reactors would lead to declining costs of nuclear power.",
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"text": "But there is no strong price decline anywhere, and certainly nothing that could be characterized by a steep learning curve.",
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"text": "But nuclear could still become more important in the future because it can complement renewables where these energy sources have their weaknesses: First, intermittency of electricity from renewables remains a challenge and a viable energy mix of the future post-carbon world will likely include all low-carbon sources, renewables as well as nuclear power. And second, the land use of renewables is large and a big environmental benefit of nuclear power is that it uses very little land.",
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"text": "And beyond the existing nuclear fission reactors there are several teams working towards nuclear fusion reactors, which would potentially entirely change the world\u2019s energy supply.",
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"text": "To make nuclear reactors competitive with fossil fuels is again an argument for carbon taxes. Nuclear reactors kill 350-times less people per unit of energy than fossil fuel plants, and as a low-carbon technology they can be key in making the transition away from fossil fuels.",
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"text": "Batteries and electricity storage follow learning curves too",
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"text": "One of the downsides of renewable sources is their intermittent supply cycle. The sun doesn\u2019t always shine and the wind doesn't always blow. Technologies like batteries that store electric power are key to balance the changing supply from renewables with the inflexible demand for electricity.",
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"text": "Fortunately electricity storage technologies are also among the few technologies that are following learning curves \u2013\u00a0their learning curve are indeed ",
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"text": "steep, as the chart here shows.",
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"text": "This chart is from my colleague Hannah Ritchie; she documents ",
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"text": "in her article",
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"text": " that the price of batteries declined by 97% in the last three decades.",
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"text": "At their current price there might only be demand for five large power storage systems in the world, but as a prediction for the future this might sound foolish one day (if you don\u2019t know what I\u2019m alluding to, you skipped reading the text in the fold-out box above).",
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"text": "Scaling up low-carbon sources leads to lower prices; let\u2019s not waste this opportunity for our planet and economy",
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"text": "The takeaway of the previous discussion is that renewables follow steep learning curves and fossil fuels do not. A key reason is that renewables do not have fuel costs and comparatively small operating and maintenance costs, which means that the LCOE of renewable energy scales with the cost of their technologies. And the key technologies of renewable energy systems \u2013 solar, wind, and batteries \u2013 themselves follow a learning curve: each doubling of their installed capacity leads to the same decline of costs.",
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"text": "If we are serious about making the transition to a low-carbon global energy system we have a fantastic opportunity in front of us. Scaling up renewable energy systems doesn\u2019t only have the direct benefit of more low-carbon energy, but has an indirect side effect that is even more important: ",
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"text": " energy.",
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"text": "The learning rates for wind and solar PV are exceptionally fast. It is extremely rare to find technologies of this kind.",
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"text": "Solar and wind have one more big advantage. While there is often little agreement in how to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, expanding solar and wind power are two options that are hugely popular with large majorities. Even in the often polarized US, renewables have the support of strong majorities of Democrats and Republicans. 85% of Americans are in favour of expanding wind power and 92% are in favor of expanding solar power, and in other countries the support is often even higher.",
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"text": "Today, at a time when the global economy \u2013 and workers around the world \u2013\u00a0suffer greatly from the COVID-19 recession and when interest rates are low (or even negative), scaling up renewable energy systems offers us a great chance to move forward. It is rare to have a policy option that leads to more jobs, cheaper prices for consumers, and a greener, safer planet.",
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"text": "The more renewable energy technologies we deploy, the more their costs will fall. More growth will mean even more growth.",
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"text": "Making renewable energy irresistible: Technological progress somewhere turns into progress everywhere",
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"text": "One last argument on why lower prices due to technological change are so crucial for making the transition to the post-carbon world. If rich countries make investments into renewable technology that drive down the price along the learning curves, they are not just working towards the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy for themselves, but for the entire world.",
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"text": "The relative price of fossil fuels and renewables is key to anyone\u2019s decision of which power plant to build. Making low-carbon technology cheap is a policy goal that doesn\u2019t only reduce emissions in your own country but in the entire world, forever.",
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"text": "Driving down the price of low-carbon energy should be seen as one of the ",
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"text": "most important goals",
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"text": " (and achievements) of clean energy policy, because it matters beyond the borders of the country that is adopting that policy. This is the beautiful thing about technology: once it is invented somewhere it can help everywhere.",
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"text": "The biggest growth in electricity demand in the coming years will not come from rich countries, but the poorer, yet rapidly developing countries in Africa and Asia.",
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"text": " The steep decline of solar power is a particularly fortunate development for many of these countries that often have ",
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"text": "sunny climates",
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"text": "Energy systems have very long path dependencies, since it is very costly to build a power plant or to decide to shut a power plant down. Investments in renewable technologies now will therefore have very long-term benefits. Every instance when a country or an electricity company decides to build a low-carbon power plant instead of a coal plant is a win for decades. Low prices are the key argument to convince the world \u2013 especially those places that have the least money \u2013 to build low-carbon power systems for a sustainable future.",
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"text": " and the technological challenges are much larger than the electricity sector alone since it is only one of several big sectors that need to be decarbonized. We need change and technological innovation across all these sectors at a scale that matches the problem and the problem is big.",
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"text": "But what the consideration of changing electricity prices has shown is that we have a clear option in front of us where we are able to make very important progress. Low-carbon technologies that were so expensive just a few decades ago that they were only affordable for satellites have came down steadily in price and now provide the cheapest electricity on the planet (which implies that they are now the cheapest source of energy that humanity ever had access to).",
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"text": "Driving down the costs of renewables is key to a green, low-carbon future, but it also has a big benefit for people today: Your real income is the ratio between what you are paid and the price of the goods and services you pay for \u2013 that is why falling energy prices means that people\u2019s real income is growing. Falling energy prices means economic growth and less poverty.",
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"text": "The reason we can hope for a future in which renewables are deployed rapidly and where fossil fuel plants become increasingly unprofitable is that renewables follow steep learning curves, and fossil fuels do not. We are heading towards a future in which the disadvantage of fossil fuels will keep increasing.",
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"text": " that the world has reached the peak of greenhouse gas emissions last year. A huge milestone, but the peak is not the goal; we need to get all the way down to net-zero.",
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"text": "I would like to thank Hannah Ritchie, Fran\u00e7ois Lafond, Rupert Way, Marcel Gerber, Ernst van Woerden, Charlie Giattino, and Breck Yunits for reading drafts of this and for their very helpful comments and ideas.",
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"text": "J. Perlin (1999) \u2013 From space to earth: the story of solar electricity. aatech publications, Ann Arbor, MI (1999) via Doyne Farmer and Fracois Lafond (2016) \u2013 How predictable is technological progress? Research Policy. Volume 45, Issue 3, April 2016, Pages 647-665. ",
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"text": "\u201cEnhanced levelised cost\u201d is an approach that aims to adjust for this, but its measurement is still in its early stages. ",
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"text": "Simon Evans discusses \u2018enhanced levelised costs\u2019 for different electricity sources in the UK",
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"text": "Carbon pricing is a policy that would make those who actually cause emissions pay for them (the richest people in the world that enjoy the best living conditions in human history), but most governments fail to implement carbon prices, and where they exist they are often too low (which has the consequence that the poorest people on the planet are \u2018paying\u2019 most for carbon emissions, since it is them who are suffering the severest consequences).",
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"text": "As a back-of-the-envelope calculation, I used the oldest data for Germany that I could find, which relates to the 1990s, and took an average to average over better and worse years. In the 1990s Germany had 48.5 MW of solar capacity and generated 23,750 MWh of electricity. This means that in these circumstances and with this technology (surely much better than the technology in 1976) they generated 145,040 kWh per solar PV capacity of 0.3 MW.",
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"text": "See Michel Berth\u00e9lemy and Lina Escobar Rangel (2015) \u2013 Nuclear reactors' construction costs: The role of lead-time, standardization and technological progress. In Energy Policy Volume 82, July 2015, Pages 118-130. ",
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"text": "For fossil fuels and nuclear we show installed capacity at each point in time (because we are not aware of any data on the cumulatively built capacity for these energy sources). I am however not expecting a large difference between installed and cumulatively built capacity \u2013 especially over a 10-year time span and for power sources that have been scaled up largely before 2009.",
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"text": "Theodore Paul Wright (1936) \u2013 Factors affecting the cost of airplanes. J. Aeronaut. Sci., 3 (4) (1936), pp. 122-128",
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"text": "Nagy B, Farmer JD, Bui QM, Trancik JE (2013) Statistical Basis for Predicting Technological Progress. PLoS ONE 8(2): e52669. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052669",
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"text": "Many more references can be found in Doyne Farmer and Fracois Lafond (2016) \u2013 How predictable is technological progress? Research Policy. Volume 45, Issue 3, April 2016, Pages 647-665. ",
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"text": "The price of Ford\u2019s Model T followed Wright\u2019s law: each doubling of cumulative production led to the same relative decline in prices. What\u2019s fascinating is that this decline hasn\u2019t stopped until today. An 8hp car, as the Model T, costs what you\u2019d expect: See Sam Korus (2019) \u2013 ",
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"text": "See also Schmidt, O., Hawkes, A., Gambhir, A. et al. The future cost of electrical energy storage based on experience rates. Nat Energy 2, 17110 (2017). ",
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"text": "Plausibly it isn\u2019t just the passing of time that drives the progress in computer chips, but there too it is the learning that comes with continuously expanding the production of these chips. Lafond et al (2018) explain that the two laws produce the same forecasts when cumulative production grows exponentially, which is the case when production grows exponentially. More precisely, if production grows exponentially with some noise/fluctuations, then cumulative production grows exponentially with very little noise/fluctuations. As a result, the log of cumulative production is a linear trend and therefore predicting cost by the linear trend of time or the linear trend of log cumulative production give the same results.",
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"text": "How well do experience curves predict technological progress? A method for making distributional forecasts",
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"text": " In Technological Forecasting and Social Change\u00a0 128, pp 104-117, 2018. ",
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"text": "Two papers to read on this point:Rupert Way, Fran\u00e7ois Lafond, Fabrizio Lillo, Valentyn Panchenko, J. Doyne Farmer (2019) \u2013 Wright meets Markowitz: How standard portfolio theory changes when assets are technologies following experience curves. In Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control. Volume 101, April 2019, Pages 211-238.",
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1 | 2023-09-01 15:14:31 | 2020-12-01 11:00:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LvUhA13Pu8NvLSup9eaygnKBGGZboUPViENNGURvgUFj4SbHm7MW84SwLOJWi8KYm998PtOOCoRsxHuwQ | <Callout title="Summary"/> The world’s energy supply today is neither safe nor sustainable. What can we do to change this and make progress against this twin-problem of the status quo? To see the way forward we have to understand the present. Today fossil fuels – coal, oil, and gas – account for [79%](https://ourworldindata.org/energy-mix#global-primary-energy-how-has-the-mix-changed-over-centuries) of the world’s energy production and as the chart below shows they have very large negative side effects. The bars to the left show the number of deaths and the bars on the right compare the greenhouse gas emissions. My colleague Hannah Ritchie explains the data in this chart in detail in her post [‘What are the safest sources of energy?](https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy)’. This makes two things very clear. As the burning of fossil fuels [accounts for 87%](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-co2-emissions-fossil-land) of the world’s CO2 emissions, a world run on fossil fuels is not sustainable, they endanger the lives and livelihoods of future generations and the biosphere around us. And the very same energy sources lead to the deaths of many people _right now_ – the air pollution from burning fossil fuels kills 3.6 million people in [countries around the world](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/pollution-deaths-from-fossil-fuels) every year; this is _6-times_ the annual death toll of all murders, war deaths, and terrorist attacks combined.1 It is important to keep in mind that electric energy is only one of several forms of energy that humanity relies on; the transition to low-carbon energy is therefore a bigger task than the transition to low-carbon electricity.2 What the chart makes clear is that the alternatives to fossil fuels – renewable energy sources and nuclear power – are orders of magnitude safer and cleaner than fossil fuels. Why then is the world relying on fossil fuels? Fossil fuels dominate the world’s energy supply because in the past they were _cheaper_ than all other … | Why did renewables become so cheap so fast? | |
| 1yFkBbkw2__5nQj5e4bgJo5WHT4T5Et8mPG9ZNrBx33k | sulfur-dioxide-emissions-from-shipping-dropped-sharply-with-the-introduction-of-new-rules-in-2020 | data-insight | {
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1 | 2024-04-29 10:53:32 | 2024-05-10 07:38:27 | 2024-05-07 14:45:25 | unlisted | ALBJ4LvE4HNQZcQU4N-YFO2lMHixviJxxGSQOcsTZ4dPcQDI_v3L8wrq4EFAbjg-spvUaRaUOiAXbw4Uc5nDDA | <Image filename="so2-shipping-desktop.png"/> The [Community Emissions Data System (CEDS)](https://github.com/JGCRI/CEDS/wiki/Release-Notes) produces invaluable long-term data on the emissions of air pollutants worldwide. It has just published its latest update, extending this data to 2022. One of the most striking changes in air pollution trends has been the abrupt drop in sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions from shipping. As you can see in the chart — where shipping is highlighted in red — there was a dramatic fall from over 10 million tonnes a year in 2019 to 3 million tonnes a year later. The change resulted from the International Maritime Organization’s strict limits on marine fuels, introduced in 2020: the maximum percentage of sulfur allowed in these fuels fell from 3.5% to 0.5%. All ships worldwide had to comply. This drop is positive for tackling local air pollution and acid rain. However, it also has implications for climate change since SO2 [has masked some of the warming](https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-how-low-sulphur-shipping-rules-are-affecting-global-warming/) caused by greenhouse gases. [Explore all of the updated data](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/air-pollution) → | Sulfur dioxide emissions from shipping dropped sharply with the introduction of new rules in 2020 | |
| 1y6_r7uCs3gCpshniXdE-nUkWgRxpZL0Tas2zm4ewebI | un-population-2024-revision | article | {
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1 | 2024-06-18 12:53:35 | 2024-07-11 22:00:00 | 2024-07-12 05:17:09 | listed | ALBJ4Lsl6EMiPnBh0P6ltsRLzOShT-8sYBtgMyyQiRpk01p2ZB4I-GerIeXpL0c9MRBWZWMdOZgFrfPnn4cRrw | We can’t understand the world without understanding demographic change. How many people are alive today? How many are born; how many die? What do we expect populations to look like in the future? The United Nations updates its big dataset — the [World Population Prospects](https://population.un.org/wpp/) — every two years to answer these questions. It just released its latest edition today. We’ve updated all of our population-related datasets and charts with this new release. You can explore all the trends for every country in our [Population and Demography Data Explorer](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/population-and-demography). In this article, we wanted to provide key insights from this latest wave of data. # The world population is projected to peak slightly earlier than in previous projections The United Nations doesn’t only publish historical estimates of how population and demographic trends have changed in the past; it also makes projections for what the future might look like. To be clear, these are projections, _not predictions_ of changes in the future. In its 2022 publication, the UN estimated that, in its medium scenario, the global population would peak in 2086 at around 10.4 billion people. This year’s edition brings this peak forward slightly to 2084, with the population topping at just under 10.3 billion. The chart below compares the two revisions. This isn’t the first time the projected peak has been pulled earlier. According to [its 2019 edition](https://population.un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2019_Highlights.pdf), the global population would reach 10.9 billion by 2100 and keep growing. The 2022 revision was the first to project a peak in the 21st century. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/un-population-2024-vs-2022"/> Not every country has seen a drop in projected population compared to the last edition. The chart below shows the differences between the two UN revisions, region by region. Note that the vertical axis scale for each region is different, allowin… | Peak global population and other key findings from the 2024 UN World Population Prospects | |
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1 | 2024-02-22 03:09:20 | 2020-10-05 07:14:00 | 2024-02-23 09:14:42 | listed | ALBJ4LvBSNhMIFFeVoRSmDfTbAfEBFOCM51O5fZVqHZRoXRPUZ4I4RKiRSXfNsQcBqNxUZtKYvpjFT2jZrfANA | # Our World in Data as a museum Lately, I've been using the analogy of a museum to describe Our World in Data. A museum offers its visitors a variety of experiences: you can book a guided tour and hear all the detailed stories behind the artworks, explore for yourself and wander around without a predetermined purpose, or maybe you're only interested in one specific exhibition, or even just a single work of art. Our articles are the guided tour, our [data](https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus-data-explorer) [explorers](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/co2?tab=chart&xScale=linear&yScale=linear&stackMode=absolute&endpointsOnly=0&time=earliest..latest&country=China~United%20States~India~United%20Kingdom~World®ion=World&Gas%20=CO%E2%82%82&Accounting%20=Production-based&Fuel%20=Total&Count%20=Per%20capita&Relative%20to%20world%20total%20=) (and charts, to some extent) allow for freeform discovery, and our search and navigation support quick and focused data lookups. We are a multi-purpose publication, and we serve a large variety of visitors. We're also a small team, so we need to be clear about our focus. Should we optimize for in-depth reading of our articles, remove all clutter, and offer a clean, distraction-free reading experience? Should we strive to offer as many interactive controls and options as possible for exploring our data, even on mobile? Or should we make it really easy and fast to look up specific data points? Can we build one structure that offers a home to these very different user behaviors? # The what, the who, and the how Our analytics data tells us which pages are popular (these days [COVID-19](https://owid.cloud/coronavirus) is at the top), where our users are coming from (mostly Google), and on which device type people are more likely to interact with our visualizations (desktop). While that is highly useful data, it doesn't give a clear idea of **who our users are**, and **how they use Our World in Data**. --- # The Survey On September 8, we sent out [a survey to learn more a… | Audience Survey - Who uses Our World in Data, and for what purpose? | |
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1 | 2024-03-09 18:05:37 | 2022-11-30 11:37:17 | 2024-03-11 11:29:39 | listed | ALBJ4LtXF6KU10eTPAtxz4eK8D-pWgWwXoqYEDQKczY1TGO_SAMKpNPFE64QOOzqJUsRkR4ZjKfVWrvt5mDQvw | Humans have had such a profound impact on the planet’s ecosystems and climate that Earth might be defined by a new geological epoch: the Anthropocene (where “anthropo” means “human”). Some think this new epoch should start during the Industrial Revolution, and some at the advent of agriculture 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. This feeds into the popular notion that environmental destruction is a recent phenomenon. The lives of our ancestors are often romanticized. Many think they lived in balance with nature, unlike modern society where we fight against it. But when we look at the evidence of human impacts over millennia, it's hard to see how this was true. Our ancient ancestors contributed to the extinction of many of the world's largest mammals ('megafauna'). This was during an event known as the Quaternary megafauna extinction (QME). The extent of these extinctions across continents is shown in the chart. Between 52,000 and 9,000 BCE, more than 178 species of the world’s largest mammals were killed off. These were mammals heavier than 44 kilograms, ranging from mammals the size of sheep to mammoths. <Image filename="QME-Extinctions.png" alt=""/> There is strong evidence to suggest that these were largely driven by humans – we look at this in more detail later. Africa was the least hard-hit, losing only 21% of its megafauna. Humans evolved in Africa, and hominins had already interacted with mammals for a long time. The same is also likely to be true across Eurasia, where 35% of megafauna were lost. But Australia, North America, and South America were particularly hard-hit; very soon after humans arrived, most large mammals were gone. Australia lost 88%; North America lost 83%; and South America, 72%. Far from being in balance with ecosystems, tiny populations of hunter-gatherers changed them forever. By 8,000 BCE – almost at the end of the QME – there were only around [5 million people](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/world-population-1750-2015-and-un-projection-until-2100) in the world. # Did humans cau… | Did humans cause the Quaternary megafauna extinction? | |
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1 | 2024-02-09 08:16:38 | 2019-10-01 15:00:19 | 2024-02-09 11:21:19 | listed | ALBJ4LtZvrOfVUhFyAZIXx7_OB0uFuQCi9_TjzpUyneN5BxLM6S6Co8-Od8Dh6yQoxo3XaAd72r5gqXBwqEvgw | Since 1751 the [world has emitted](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/cumulative-co2-emissions-region?stackMode=absolute) over 1.5 trillion tonnes of CO2.1 To reach our [climate goal](https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions#future-emission-scenarios) of limiting average temperature rise to 2°C, the world needs to urgently reduce emissions. One common argument is that those countries which have added most to the CO2 in our atmosphere – contributing most to the problem today – should take on the greatest responsibility in tackling it. We can compare each country’s total contribution to global emissions by looking at _cumulative__CO__2_. We can calculate cumulative emissions by adding up each country’s annual CO2 emissions over time. We did this calculation for each country and region over the period from 1751 through to 2017.2 The distribution of cumulative emissions around the world is shown in the treemap. Treemaps are used to compare entities (such as countries or regions) in relation to others, and relative to the total. Here countries are presented as rectangles and colored by region. The size of each rectangle corresponds to the sum of CO2 emissions from a country between 1751 and 2017. Combined, all rectangles represent the global total. <Image filename="Cumulative-CO2-treemap.png" alt=""/> There are some key points we can learn from this perspective: * the United States has emitted more CO2 than any other country to date: at around 400 billion tonnes since 1751, it is responsible for 25% of historical emissions; * this is twice more than China – the world’s second largest national contributor; * the 28 countries of the European Union (EU-28) – which are grouped together here as they typically negotiate and [set targets](https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/eu/) on a collaborative basis – is also a large historical contributor at 22%; * many of the large annual emitters today – such as India and Brazil – are not large contributors in a historical context; * Africa’s regio… | Who has contributed most to global CO2 emissions? | |
| 1xdTt6o9OWxJ9RJAQ1DiyfTuFZGPfGnHUFq5AA86sBOg | rise-us-maternal-mortality-rates-measurement | article | {
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"text": "Davis, N. L., Hoyert, D. L., Goodman, D. A., Hirai, A. H., & Callaghan, W. M. (2017). Contribution of maternal age and pregnancy checkbox on maternal mortality ratios in the United States, 1978\u20132012. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 217(3), 352.e1-352.e7. ",
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"excerpt": "Maternal mortality rates appear to have risen in the last 20 years in the US. But this reflects a change in measurement rather than an actual rise in mortality.",
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1 | 2024-03-13 17:17:04 | 2024-05-13 08:03:00 | 2024-05-09 11:56:02 | listed | ALBJ4Lvwb_fqZJVG0npYw-039izMLv4NmxVDAIpCJPCb62CNukiwfiN-9vqa3eUH_ozZSSwyoM8sqD8DsVYVtg | Look at reported maternal mortality rates in the United States, and you’ll see an alarming rise since the early 2000s. This rise has been widely covered in the media. See a 2023 article on Scientific American: “[Why Maternal Mortality Rates Are Getting Worse across the U.S.](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-maternal-mortality-rates-are-getting-worse-across-the-u-s/)” Or a report on National Public Radio (NPR): “[The number of people dying in the U.S. from pregnancy-related causes has more than doubled in the last 20 years.](https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2023/07/04/1185904749/u-s-maternal-deaths-keep-rising-heres-who-is-most-at-risk)” It has, understandably, been a big concern among the public. But researchers have shown that this rise does not represent an actual increase in the number of women dying in childbirth. Rather, it is the result of a change in measurement that was gradually introduced in the US between 2003 and 2017. This change wasn’t adopted at a national level in a single moment; that would have led to a single step-wise change in mortality rates. Instead, the measurement change was adopted state by state, which led to a _gradual_ rise over 14 years. This measurement change has helped to identify more deaths that meet the criteria for maternal deaths, but has also led to some misclassification. The process of [determining the cause of death](https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-causes-of-death-registered-around-the-world) can be complicated, and in many countries, national statistics from death certificates tend to miss some maternal deaths. To tackle this, some countries have used additional systems to identify maternal deaths that would otherwise be unreported. In this article, I explain how a change in measurement in the United States led to an apparent rising trend in maternal deaths. # The recent rise in reported US maternal mortality looks alarming Maternal mortality refers to the death of mothers from pregnancy, childbirth, abortion, or related causes. The cha… | The rise in reported maternal mortality rates in the US is largely due to a change in measurement | |
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"text": "Literacy is a key skill and a key measure of a population\u2019s education. In this topic page, we discuss historical trends, as well as recent developments in literacy.",
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"text": "From a historical perspective, literacy levels for the world population have risen drastically in the last couple of centuries. While only one in ten people in the world could read and write in 1820, ",
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"text": "today, the share has reversed, with only one in ten remaining illiterate",
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"text": "Despite large improvements in the expansion of basic education and the continuous reduction of education inequalities, there are substantial challenges ahead. The poorest countries in the world, where basic education is most likely to be a constraint for development, still have very large segments of the population who are illiterate.",
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"text": "Access to basic education: Almost 60 million children of primary school age are not in school",
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"text": "Millions of children learn only very little. How can the world provide a better education to the next generation?",
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"text": "Of the world population older than 15 years, the majority are literate. This interactive map shows how literacy rates vary around the world.",
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"text": "In many countries, more than 95% have basic literacy skills. Literacy skills of the majority of the population are a modern achievement as we show below.",
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"text": "Globally, however, large inequalities remain, notably between some sub-Saharan Africa and the rest of the world. In some countries in sub-Saharan Africa, fewer than 1-in-3 adults (aged over 15 years) are able to both read and write.",
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"text": "While the earliest forms of written communication date back to about 3,500-3,000 BCE, for centuries literacy remained a very restricted technology closely associated with the exercise of power. It was only during the Middle Ages that book production started growing, and literacy among the general population slowly started becoming important in the Western World.",
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"text": ", it took centuries for it to happen. It was only in the 19th and 20th centuries that rates of literacy approached universality in early-industrialized countries.",
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"text": "The following visualization presents estimates of world literacy from the early nineteenth century until the current day. As we can see, literacy rates grew constantly but rather slowly until the beginning of the twentieth century. The rate of growth really climbed after the middle of the 20th century, when the expansion of basic education became a global priority. You can read more about the expansion of education systems around the world on our topic page on ",
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"text": "The following visualization shows the spread of literacy in Europe since the 15th century, based on estimates from Buringh and Van Zanden (2009).",
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"text": "As can be seen, the rising levels of education in Europe foreshadowed the emergence of modern societies.",
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"text": "Particularly fast improvements in literacy took place across Northwest Europe in the period 1600-1800. As we discuss below, widespread literacy is considered a legacy of the Age of Enlightenment.",
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"text": "The next chart shows historical estimates of literacy in England over the last five centuries.",
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"text": "The historical estimates are based on the percentage of men and women who could sign documents, a very basic definition of literacy that is often used in historical research on education.",
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"text": "The first observations refer to men and women in the diocese of Norwich, which lies to the Northeast of London. Here, the majority of men (61%) were unable to write their names in the late 16th century; for women, it was much lower.",
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"text": "By 1840, two-thirds of men and about half of women were literate in England. The expansion of education led to a reduction in education gender inequality. Towards the end of the 19th century, the share had increased to almost three-quarters for both genders.",
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"text": " became only possible thanks to an increasingly better-educated public. Economic growth is possible when we better understand how to produce the things we need and translate these insights into technological improvements that allow us to produce them more efficiently. Both the development of new technologies (innovation) and their use in production relied on a much better-educated population.",
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"text": " and even basic skills like literacy are very recent achievements that were enabled and, at the same time, required by the progress achieved in recent generations.",
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"text": "The expansion of literacy in early-industrialized countries helped reduce within-country inequalities. In the preceding visualization, we showed that England virtually closed literacy gender gaps by 1900. Here, we provide evidence of literacy gaps across races in the US.",
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"text": "The following visualization shows illiteracy rates by race for the period 1870-1979. As we can see, in order to reach near-universal levels of literacy, the US had to close the race gap. This was eventually achieved around 1980.",
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"text": "Percentage of persons 14 years old and over in the US who were illiterate by race, 1870-1979 \u2013 Our World in Data, with data from NCES",
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"text": "The next visualization shows, in two panels, a side-by-side comparison of long-term trends in school attendance and literacy.",
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"text": "We can see that in 1870, only one in four people in the world attended school, and this meant that only one in five were able to read. Global inequalities in access to education were very large.",
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"text": "Today, in contrast, the global estimates of literacy and school attendance are above 80%, and the inequality between world regions \u2013 while still existing \u2013 is much lower.",
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"text": "We can see that two centuries ago, only a small elite of the world population had the ability to read and write \u2013 the best estimate is that 12% of the world population was literate. Over the course of the 19th century, global literacy more than doubled. And over the course of the 20th century the world achieved rapid progress in education. More than 4 out of 5 people are now able to read. Younger generations are better educated than ever before.",
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"text": "As pointed out above, Europe pioneered the expansion of basic education \u2013 but global literacy rates only started really climbing in the second half of the 20th century, when the expansion of basic education became a global priority. Here, we present evidence of important recent achievements in Latin America, where literacy has dramatically increased in the past century.",
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"text": "As can be seen, many nations have gained 40-50 percentage points in literacy during this period.",
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"text": "Despite these improvements, however, there is still a wide disparity between nations. Here, you can see that, at the turn of the 21st century, half of the population in poor countries such as Haiti remains illiterate. This motivates the next visualization, where we discuss cross-country heterogeneity in more detail.",
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"text": "To assess the extent to which progress can be expected in the years to come, it is convenient to break down literacy estimates by age groups. The following map, using data from UNESCO, shows such estimates for most countries in the world.",
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"text": "As can be seen, in the majority of nations, there is a large difference in literacy rates across generations.",
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"text": "These large differences across generations point to a global trend: the high literacy rate among the youth indicates that as time passes, the literacy rate for the overall population will continue to increase.",
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"text": "Northern Africa and the Middle East have drastically improved literacy in just one generation",
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"text": "We highlighted above the fact that most low and middle-income countries feature large differences in literacy rates across generations. The visualization shows specifically how remarkably large these differences are in Northern Africa and the Middle East. Using UNESCO data, these maps show that in many countries in these regions, only less than a third of the older generation is literate \u2013 while in contrast, more than 90% of the younger generation is literate.",
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"text": "The scatter plot emphasizes the point already made. As you can see, younger generations are more likely to be literate than older generations around the world. In some countries, the gaps are dramatic. For example, countries in the bottom right of the chart where the youth literacy rate may be over 90% but the elderly literacy rate is below 40%.",
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"text": "In the chart you can use the slider at the bottom to check how these generational gaps have changed in recent decades. You can see that ",
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"text": "throughout Africa, the changes have been mainly horizontal",
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"text": " (i.e., gaps have been widening as there have been radical recent improvements specifically benefiting the younger population). This is in contrast to richer regions, such as Europe, where the expansion of education started earlier, and as a consequence, ",
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"text": "Another way to dissect the same data is to classify literacy estimates according to the type of measurement instrument used to collect the relevant data. In the next chart, we explore this, splitting estimates into three categories: sampling, including data from literacy tests, and household surveys; census data; and other instruments (e.g., administrative data on school enrollment).",
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"text": "Countries with high literacy rates also tend to have higher results in the basic literacy test included in the DHS surveys (this test requires survey respondents to read a sentence shown to them). As we can see in the chart, but these two variables are closely related.",
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"Max Roser",
"Esteban Ortiz-Ospina"
],
"excerpt": "Being able to read and write opens up the world of education and knowledge.\nWhen and why did more people become literate? How can progress continue?",
"dateline": "This article was first published in 2013. The last revisions were done in March 2024.",
"subtitle": "Being able to read and write opens up the world of education and knowledge.\nWhen and why did more people become literate? How can progress continue?",
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"featured-image": "literacy-thumbnail.png"
} |
1 | 2023-11-10 14:55:56 | 2018-09-20 13:59:11 | 2024-03-06 12:03:15 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lvk0BxIwW6ifuNKBxbcrflNZqkaTW06BIsSB9iMY4cB05Z5AewE2caRb30c07HWiTSxM-WyJZRxNtKh7A | Literacy is a key skill and a key measure of a population’s education. In this topic page, we discuss historical trends, as well as recent developments in literacy. From a historical perspective, literacy levels for the world population have risen drastically in the last couple of centuries. While only one in ten people in the world could read and write in 1820, [today, the share has reversed, with only one in ten remaining illiterate](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/cross-country-literacy-rates?country=~OWID_WRL). Despite large improvements in the expansion of basic education and the continuous reduction of education inequalities, there are substantial challenges ahead. The poorest countries in the world, where basic education is most likely to be a constraint for development, still have very large segments of the population who are illiterate. **[See all interactive charts on literacy ↓](#all-charts)** ### Related topics ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1FbKVWqPddBZy0NcHzDG-BSoCsN5tJnok3RXcLo6R9ls/edit Other research and writing on literacy on Our World in Data: * [Access to basic education: Almost 60 million children of primary school age are not in school](https://ourworldindata.org/children-not-in-school) * [Education spending](https://ourworldindata.org/financing-education) * [How is literacy measured?](https://ourworldindata.org/how-is-literacy-measured) * [Millions of children learn only very little. How can the world provide a better education to the next generation?](https://ourworldindata.org/better-learning) # Global literacy today Of the world population older than 15 years, the majority are literate. This interactive map shows how literacy rates vary around the world. In many countries, more than 95% have basic literacy skills. Literacy skills of the majority of the population are a modern achievement as we show below. Globally, however, large inequalities remain, notably between some sub-Saharan Africa and the rest of the world. In some countries in sub-Sahar… | Literacy | |
| 1xTrEatdbSxXE7TGB1wuH99PIj0fZNRSCNRiZ1-TmbNs | weather-forecasts | article | {
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"text": "Weather forecasts are often seen as just a nice thing to have. Useful when planning a Sunday barbecue, or when we want to know if we\u2019ll need an umbrella for the day. But in many ways weather forecasts are absolutely crucial: they can be a matter of life and death.",
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"text": "Accurate forecasts can save lives by giving early warnings of storms, heat waves, and disasters. Farmers use them for agricultural management, which can make the difference between a lost harvest or a harvest of plenty. Grid operators rely on accurate forecasts of temperatures for heating and cooling demand, and how much energy they\u2019ll get from wind and solar farms. Pilots and sailors need them to carry people across oceans safely. Accurate information about future weather is often absolutely vital.",
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"text": "In this article, I look at improvements over time and the global inequalities that need to be closed to protect lives and livelihoods around the world.",
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"text": "Weather forecasting has come a long way. In 650 B.C. the Babylonians would try to predict weather patterns based on cloud patterns and movements. Three centuries later, Aristotle wrote ",
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"text": "Each line represents the error of forecasts for different time periods in advance. For example, 12 hours before it hits, all the way up to 120 hours (or 5 days) before.",
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"text": "We can see that this track error \u2014 especially for longer-term forecasts \u2014 has decreased a lot over time. In the 1970s, a 48-hour forecast had an error between 200 and 400 nautical miles; today this is around 50 nautical miles.",
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"text": "We can show the same data another way. In the chart below, each line represents the average error for each decade. On the horizontal axis we have the forecast period, again extending from 0 to 120 hours.",
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"text": "Meteorologists can now make pretty accurate predictions of where a hurricane will hit three or four days in advance, which lets cities and communities prepare while preventing unnecessary evacuations that might have been implemented in the past.",
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"text": "Three-day forecasts \u2014\u00a0shown in blue \u2014 have been pretty accurate since the 1980s, and have still gotten a lot better over time. Today the accuracy is around 97%.",
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1 | 2024-02-14 12:38:07 | 2024-03-12 10:34:37 | 2024-03-15 17:51:44 | listed | ALBJ4Lt2AdFj0YAh191f4eEeminL4CMufqEJ1zCc8QRsMwEgD_usz4yCX3UnMrJ1Wq3EDIP_5hfsN8UV63MHew | Weather forecasts are often seen as just a nice thing to have. Useful when planning a Sunday barbecue, or when we want to know if we’ll need an umbrella for the day. But in many ways weather forecasts are absolutely crucial: they can be a matter of life and death. Accurate forecasts can save lives by giving early warnings of storms, heat waves, and disasters. Farmers use them for agricultural management, which can make the difference between a lost harvest or a harvest of plenty. Grid operators rely on accurate forecasts of temperatures for heating and cooling demand, and how much energy they’ll get from wind and solar farms. Pilots and sailors need them to carry people across oceans safely. Accurate information about future weather is often absolutely vital. In this article, I look at improvements over time and the global inequalities that need to be closed to protect lives and livelihoods around the world. # Weather forecasts have improved a lot Weather forecasting has come a long way. In 650 B.C. the Babylonians would try to predict weather patterns based on cloud patterns and movements. Three centuries later, Aristotle wrote _Meteorologica_, discussing how phenomena such as rain, hail, hurricanes, and lightning formed. Much of it turned out to be wrong, but it represents one of the first attempts to explain how the weather works in detail. It wasn’t until 1859 that the UK’s Meteorological Service (the Met Office) [issued its first](https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/who/our-history) weather forecast for shipping. Two years later, it broadcasted its first public weather forecast. While meteorological measurements improved over time, the massive step-change in predictions came with the use of computerized numerical modeling. This didn’t start until a century later, in the 1960s. Forecasts have improved a lot since then. We can see this across a range of measurements, and different national meteorological organizations. The Met Office [says](https://blog.metoffice.gov.uk/2023/11/15/why-an-exact-date-we… | Weather forecasts have become much more accurate; we now need to make them available to everyone | |
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"text": "The two most consequential changes we make relate to RoW\u2019s identification of whether a country\u2019s chief executive is elected. One way RoW considers a chief executive to have been elected \u2014 even if they are not directly elected or appointed by the legislature \u2014 is if they are the head of state, they depend on the approval of the legislature, and there were multi-party elections for the executive. This last part is likely a coding error because to be consistent with RoW's other definitions, this should depend on multi-party legislative, not executive, elections. Only if the legislature has been chosen in multi-party elections does it make an otherwise unelected chief executive\u2014who must be approved by that legislature\u2014dependent on multi-party elections. We correct this error. Furthermore, RoW considers a chief executive to have been elected if the country had chosen both its legislature and executive in multi-party elections. But this considers some chief executives as elected even if they came to power through force after elections were previously held. Examples include the coup d\u2019\u00e9tats led by Fulgencio Batista in Cuba in 1952 and by Muhammadu Buhari in Nigeria in 1983. We instead consider such chief executives as unelected.",
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1 | 2023-07-21 11:15:11 | 2021-12-02 13:47:16 | 2023-12-28 16:31:13 | unlisted | ALBJ4LsxJvUJmrN5-WZbuqAWXl0rZCy--iDzwej0oX_lcAcAglb9TDAiZSIGPzdxRkAX7jNFCHdNRGg7WGARKQ | Measuring the state of democracy across the world helps us understand the extent to which people have political rights and freedoms. But measuring democracy comes with many challenges. People do not always agree on what characteristics define a democracy. These characteristics — such as whether an election was free and fair — are difficult to define and assess. The judgment of experts is to some degree subjective. They may disagree about a specific characteristic or how something as complex as a political system can be reduced into a single measure. How do researchers address these challenges and measure democracy? # What is the Regimes of the World data? In some of our work on democracy, we rely on the Regimes of the World (RoW) data by political scientists Anna Lührmann, Marcus Tannenberg, and Staffan Lindberg1, published by the [Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) project](https://www.v-dem.net/vdemds.html).2 The project is managed by the V-Dem Institute, based at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden. It spans seven more regional centers around the world and is [run](https://www.v-dem.net/about/v-dem-project/) by five principal investigators, dozens of project and regional managers, and more than 100 country coordinators. V-Dem is funded through grants and donations by government agencies and private foundations, such as the Swedish Research Council, the European Commission, and the Marcus and Marianne Wallenberg Foundation. # How does RoW characterize democracy? Regimes of the World distinguishes four types of political systems: closed autocracies, electoral autocracies, electoral democracies, and liberal democracies. * **Closed autocracy**: citizens do not have the right to choose either the chief executive of the government or the legislature through multi-party elections * **Electoral autocracy**: citizens have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature through multi-party elections; but they lack some freedoms, such as the freedoms of association or expression that make the election… | The ‘Regimes of the World’ data: how do researchers measure democracy? | |
| 1xK2lZ4tIq9rdwyjD7F4WB9kmhiyK5l1qsH1GjoSN1UI | covid-sweden-death-reporting | article | {
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1 | 2024-02-21 18:55:24 | 2020-11-13 09:49:01 | 2024-02-21 19:04:04 | listed | ALBJ4LvhWrxnOX8nQVXcuxFmrBWwnPQKuM_t7cIYkldLOIjBDzeCRL0h2gjSiufQmDjHC48InZl6t7A1yB2R7Q | There are two ways that COVID-19 deaths can be presented over time: by the date of death, or the date on which the death was reported. Neither of these methods is necessarily better than the other—but one should be aware of the difference as it can affect comparisons across countries and over time if these methods are not consistent. The official data for deaths in Sweden is presented by date of death by [Folkhälsomyndigheten](https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/smittskydd-beredskap/utbrott/aktuella-utbrott/covid-19/statistik-och-analyser/bekraftade-fall-i-sverige/), the Swedish Public Health Agency. This matters because it can take many days until all deaths for a particular day are reported in Sweden. In practice this means that Sweden might today only report 10 deaths for yesterday, but once reporting is complete the death count for that same day might increase to 40. The death counts for the last 2 weeks in Sweden should therefore always be interpreted as an incomplete count of what occurred in this period. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/sweden-official-covid-deaths?tab=chart&stackMode=absolute&time=earliest..latest®ion=World"/> # The mortality data presented by the Swedish Public Health Agency evolves over time This undercount in recent days means that deaths often appear to be falling; but when this is later completed, data shows that more deaths were occurring during that period. **This means that for the last 2 weeks of data, death counts in Sweden must only be interpreted as an incomplete measure of mortality.** As an example, this chart shows what confirmed deaths looked like for the period from October 20 to October 29, when the data was first published on October 30 (red series), and once many more death certificates had been added on November 12 (blue series). <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/daily-new-confirmed-covid-19-deaths-in-sweden-oct-2020?tab=chart&stackMode=absolute&country=Data%20on%20Nov.%209~Data%20on%20Oct.%2030®ion=World"/> One day after Octo… | Why do COVID-19 deaths in Sweden's official data always appear to decrease? | |
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1 | 2023-11-10 14:20:48 | 2017-08-17 13:21:34 | 2024-02-29 11:06:20 | unlisted | ALBJ4LvACZOZGizGMjUoqGu3aDk0hUYbqvtiqLWJVhWcHVfXV-iQozXk-U_VYH2oTzlgwA462QiaxUVocgfwAA | Obesity is a major risk factor for a range of diseases, including heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and various types of cancer. It is most commonly measured using the body mass index (BMI) scale. On this page, you will find global data and research on obesity — its prevalence, drivers, health consequences, and trends over time. **[See all interactive charts on Obesity ↓](#all-charts)** **Related topics:** ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/14eHWSP57fDnIsbKVIkpEFf2nFlXP_egrcdIDp881QfM/edit ### Hunger and Undernourishment How does undernourishment vary across the world? How has it changed over time? https://ourworldindata.org/hunger-and-undernourishment ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/13s3a_bgPT8_VRu50K1pf9Nc7zhu-IyxqYzUDR95NCRw/edit **Other research and writing on obesity on Our World in Data:** * [What is obesity and how is it measured?](https://ourworldindata.org/obesity-definition) # What is obesity? ## Obesity is commonly measured using the Body Mass Index (BMI) scale Obesity can be measured in different ways, but the most common is the Body Mass Index (BMI) scale, which is calculated based on a person’s height and weight. BMI is defined as their weight in kilograms divided by the square of their height in meters (kg/m2).1 BMI values are used to define whether an individual is considered to be underweight, healthy, overweight, or obese. In adults, the WHO defines these categories using the cut-off points: an individual with a BMI between 25 and 30 is considered "overweight", while a BMI greater than 30 is defined as "obese".2 However, different cut-off points are used for other groups, such as children and pregnant women. Read more in our article: ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1lcBQGkqIduZ_A-BLLfW5ejD-YK2mCI3CtDrim0Hjjp4/edit # Obesity is one of the leading risk factors for early death ## Obesity is responsible for millions of premature deaths each year Obesity is one of the world's largest health problems —… | Obesity | |
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"text": "The rise of social media in rich countries has come together with an increase in the amount of time spent online",
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"text": "Facebook, the largest social media platform in the world, had 2.4 billion users in 2019. Other social media platforms, including YouTube and WhatsApp, also had over one billion users each.",
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"text": " worldwide, with at least ",
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"text": "3.5 billion online",
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"text": ". This means social media platforms were used by one in three people worldwide and more than two-thirds of all Internet users.",
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"text": "Social media has changed the world. The rapid and vast adoption of these technologies is changing how we ",
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"text": "Who uses social media? When did the rise of social media start, and how has the number of users changed over time? Here we answer these and other key questions to understand the history of social media worldwide.",
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"text": "We begin with an outline of key trends and conclude with a perspective on the social media adoption rate relative to other modern communication technologies.",
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"text": "MySpace was the first social media site to reach a million monthly active users \u2013\u00a0it achieved this milestone around 2004. This is arguably the beginning of social media as we know it.",
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"text": "TikTok, for example, launched in September 2016, and by mid-2018, it had already reached half a billion users. To put this in perspective: TikTok gained, on average, about 20 million new users per month over this period.",
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"text": "The data also shows rapid changes in the opposite direction. Once-dominant platforms have disappeared. In 2008, Hi5, MySpace, and Friendster were close competitors to Facebook, yet by 2012 they had virtually no market share. The case of MySpace is remarkable, considering that in 2006 it ",
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"text": "Most social media platforms that survived the last decade have shifted significantly in what they offer users. Twitter, for example, didn\u2019t allow users to upload videos or images initially. Since 2011 this has been possible, and today, ",
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"text": "With 2.3 billion users, Facebook was the most popular social media platform in 2019. YouTube, Instagram, and WeChat followed, with over a billion users. Tumblr and TikTok came next, with over half a billion users.",
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"text": "The aggregate numbers mask a great deal of heterogeneity across platforms. Some social media sites are much more popular than others among specific population groups.",
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"text": "In general, young people are more likely to use social media than older people. But some platforms are much more popular among younger people. This is shown in the chart where we plot the breakdown of social media use by age group in the US.",
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"text": "For Snapchat and Instagram, the \u2018age gradient\u2019 is exceptionally steep \u2013 the popularity of these platforms drops much faster with age. Most people under 25 use Snapchat (73%), while only 3% of people over 65 use it.",
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"text": "Since these platforms are relatively new, it\u2019s hard to know how much of this age gradient results from a \u201ccohort effect\u201d. In other words: it\u2019s unclear whether today\u2019s young people will continue using Snapchat as they age. If they do, the age gradient will narrow.",
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"text": "Let\u2019s now look at gender differences.",
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"text": "This chart shows the percentage of men and women that used different platforms in the US in 2021\u2014the diagonal line marks parity. Sites above the diagonal line are more popular among women, and those below are more popular among men.",
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"text": "Evidence shows that in other rich countries, people also spend many hours per day online. The following chart shows how many hours young people spend online across various rich countries. As we can see, the average for the OECD is more than 4 hours per day; in some countries, the average is above 6 hours per day.",
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"text": "The percentage of US adults who use social media increased from 5% in 2005 to 79% in 2019. Even on a global stage, the speed of diffusion is striking: Facebook surged from covering around 1.5% of the world population in 2008 to around 30% in 2018.",
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"Esteban Ortiz-Ospina"
],
"excerpt": "Social media sites are used by more than two-thirds of Internet users. How has social media grown over time?",
"dateline": "September 18, 2019",
"subtitle": "Social media sites are used by more than two-thirds of Internet users. How has social media grown over time?",
"featured-image": "Rise-social-media-thumbnail.png"
} |
1 | 2023-03-13 12:30:28 | 2019-09-18 09:00:44 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LsBoJwnGujQ4tWSTQv9-3Cd-WmOvnW8cnaV4Vta6zme_wH2faTSRnAPdJdHtaVQhvYEEcaTBTMgKiLs9Q | <Callout title="Note"/> Facebook, the largest social media platform in the world, had 2.4 billion users in 2019. Other social media platforms, including YouTube and WhatsApp, also had over one billion users each. These numbers are huge – in 2019, there were [7.7 billion people](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/world-population-by-world-regions-post-1820) worldwide, with at least [3.5 billion online](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-of-internet-users-by-country?tab=chart&time=1990..2016&country=OWID_WRL). This means social media platforms were used by one in three people worldwide and more than two-thirds of all Internet users. Social media has changed the world. The rapid and vast adoption of these technologies is changing how we [find partners](https://www.pnas.org/content/116/36/17753), access information from the news, and [organize to demand political change](https://www.twitterandteargas.org/). Who uses social media? When did the rise of social media start, and how has the number of users changed over time? Here we answer these and other key questions to understand the history of social media worldwide. We begin with an outline of key trends and conclude with a perspective on the social media adoption rate relative to other modern communication technologies. ## Social media started in the early 2000s MySpace was the first social media site to reach a million monthly active users – it achieved this milestone around 2004. This is arguably the beginning of social media as we know it.1 In the chart, we plot monthly active users across various platforms since 2004. Some large social media sites, such as Facebook, YouTube, and Reddit, have been around for ten or more years, but others are much newer. TikTok, for example, launched in September 2016, and by mid-2018, it had already reached half a billion users. To put this in perspective: TikTok gained, on average, about 20 million new users per month over this period. The data also shows rapid changes in the opposite direction. Once-dominant p… | The rise of social media | |
| 1wcnF-qtMtNWOxYNgXPSXF1l2FK5OiX0uw2wyJZZwRUA | living-planet-index-decline | article | {
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"slug": "is-the-living-planet-index-sensitive-to-outliers",
"text": "Is the Living Planet Index sensitive to outliers?",
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"text": "The Living Planet Index is the biodiversity metric that always claims the headlines. Unfortunately, many of these headlines are wrong. The index is very easy to misinterpret.",
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"text": "The Living Planet Index reports an average decline of 69% across tens of thousands of wildlife populations since 1970. This does not tell us anything about the number of individuals, species or populations lost, or even the share of populations that are shrinking.",
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"text": "Before reporting on the Living Planet Index we should understand what it actually tells us about the world\u2019s wildlife. We should also be aware of the misconceptions and pitfalls of using this index to capture the changes in more than 30,000 of the world\u2019s animal populations.",
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"url": "https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/last-50-years-earth-lost-68-percent-of-wildlife-85-percent-wetlands-because-of-humans-522447.html#:~:text=5%20months%20ago-,In%20The%20Last%2050%20Years%2C%20Earth%20Has%20Lost%2068%25%20Of,All%20Thanks%20To%20Us%20Humans&text=Global%20animal%2C%20bird%2C%20and%20fish,a%20new%20report%20has%20stated.",
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"text": "In the last 50 years, Earth has lost 68% of wildlife, all thanks to us humans",
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"text": "Humanity has wiped out 60% of animal populations since 1970, report finds",
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"text": "These are just three of many headlines covering the ",
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"text": ". But they are all wrong. They are based on a misunderstanding of what the Living Planet Index shows.",
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"text": "I sympathize with the journalists. Interpreting this metric is hard. I\u2019m sure I\u2019ve made similar mistakes in the past: using the terms \u2018decline\u2019, \u2018lost\u2019, and \u2018fall\u2019 interchangeably in biodiversity discussions. Combine this with the complexities of \u2018populations\u2019, \u2018species\u2019 and \u2018extinctions\u2019, and it gets complicated pretty quickly.",
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"text": " in the number of individuals across the world\u2019s animal populations. A \u2018population\u2019 is defined as a species within a geographical area. So, despite being the same species, the African elephant in South Africa and Tanzania are counted as different populations.",
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"text": "Let\u2019s take a look at an example. This will not only show us how easily this figure can be misinterpreted but also why we should be careful when assuming that it gives us an accurate picture of what\u2019s really happening to all wildlife populations.",
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"text": ": one in Tanzania and one in Botswana. In the first row of the table, we see their population size in 1980: there were 3795 rhinos in Tanzania, and only 30 in Botswana. In the following decades intense poaching in Tanzania has plunged its population to critically endangered status: in the second row we see that by 2017 there were only 160 rhinos left. Things in Botswana actually improved over time: its 30 rhinos increased to 50. The difference between their population size in 1980 and 2017 is shown in the third row: this represents the number of animals lost over time. And in the final row, we see the percentage change in population size for each.",
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"text": "The Tanzanian rhinos obviously did not fare well: they lost 96% of their population. The group in Botswana did much better. In fact, their numbers ",
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"text": "If we calculate the average change of these two populations we get a value of -15%. Take the average of the change in Tanzania (-96%) and Botswana (67%). This means the Black rhinos saw an average decline of 15%.",
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"text": "Here, things get slightly more complex, because the actual LPI is calculated in a similar way but with one difference. It doesn\u2019t just take the mean change across populations (called the ",
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"text": "Let's keep that in mind. I'll continue to also explain this using the ",
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"text": " mean because it's easier to follow and understand. But it's the geometric mean that the LPI uses. The numbers are different, but their implications are similar.",
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"text": "The common misinterpretation of these numbers \u2013 where headlines would incorrectly report that \u201cwe\u2019ve ",
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"text": " 15% [or 74%] of animals\u201d \u2013 is shown in the far right column. There we\u2019ve summed these numbers to show the two populations combined. In 1980, the total number of animals was 3825. We then lost 3615 of them, to give us only 210 in 2017. This means we actually lost 95% of the rhinos. The LPI is therefore a different measure from the number or percentage of individual animals lost.",
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"text": "But this also highlights an even greater danger when reporting the LPI. By averaging these two populations we\u2019ve ended up pretty clueless about the status of either of them. Either a 15% [or 74% using the geometric mean] decline would give a skewed understanding of the situation. The Black rhino in Tanzania has lost 96% of its rhinos and has become critically endangered. On the other hand, something is going right in Botswana because its numbers have ",
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"text": "This might mean we don\u2019t prioritize the Tanzanian black rhino when we really need to. And we might lose out on an important lesson from Botswana on how to increase numbers in critically endangered populations. This is why a more population-specific approach to conservation is needed, as I discuss in the dropdown box at the end of this article.",
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"text": "Let\u2019s then dig into the actual results of the LPI. The above headline is the main message of the 2022 Living Planet Index report.",
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"text": "What types and how much of the world\u2019s wildlife does the LPI cover? In the latest report it covered 31,821 populations of 5,230 species across the world. It only covers vertebrate species \u2013 mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians.",
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"text": "It includes a large number of populations from each world region. In the latest report, the authors significantly increased the number of studies that were included in languages other than English. The number of included species from Asia and the Pacific increased by a quarter since the 2020 report. For Africa, species coverage increased by 37%. And most notably, it expanded by 66% across Latin America and the Caribbean.",
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"text": "This is great progress. However, the tropics ",
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"text": "are still underrepresented",
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"text": " relative to Europe and North America. This is not ideal, considering the tropics are home to the greatest diversity of species and is where wildlife is most threatened.",
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"text": "This reveals two further limitations. First, it only covers a tiny percentage of species: Only 16% of known bird species; 11% of mammals; 6% of fish; and 3% of amphibians and reptile species. It\u2019s hard to say how representative the available data is: it\u2019s often the case that the species we are most concerned about (deservedly) get the most attention in the research. Second, many taxonomic groups are not included at all \u2013 nothing on insects, fungi, coral or plants. This is largely due to data availability \u2013 it\u2019s easier to count bears than ants. Still, we should be wary of generalizing these results to all life on Earth. ",
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"text": "The global LPI is shown in the chart, where the value in 1970 is indexed to 100%. As we see, this has fallen to 31% in 2018, signifying a 69% decline.",
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1 | 2024-02-27 18:56:11 | 2022-10-13 09:00:00 | 2024-02-27 18:59:29 | listed | ALBJ4LtJA9tjOX5gD72q-f6-og6jVfHGitSta_0dhXNXu9MteIQokrr1QyelaPkGA2tu5EZRl-OoQEr4A9QzKw | <Callout title="Summary"/> “[In the last 50 years, Earth has lost 68% of wildlife, all thanks to us humans](https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/last-50-years-earth-lost-68-percent-of-wildlife-85-percent-wetlands-because-of-humans-522447.html#:~:text=5%20months%20ago-,In%20The%20Last%2050%20Years%2C%20Earth%20Has%20Lost%2068%25%20Of,All%20Thanks%20To%20Us%20Humans&text=Global%20animal%2C%20bird%2C%20and%20fish,a%20new%20report%20has%20stated.)” (India Times) “[Humanity has wiped out 60% of animal populations since 1970, report finds](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/30/humanity-wiped-out-animals-since-1970-major-report-finds)” (The Guardian) “[We've lost 60% of wildlife in less than 50 years](https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/10/weve-lost-60-of-wildlife-in-less-than-50-years/)” (World Economic Forum) These are just three of many headlines covering the [Living Planet Index](https://www.livingplanetindex.org/home/index). But they are all wrong. They are based on a misunderstanding of what the Living Planet Index shows. I sympathize with the journalists. Interpreting this metric is hard. I’m sure I’ve made similar mistakes in the past: using the terms ‘decline’, ‘lost’, and ‘fall’ interchangeably in biodiversity discussions. Combine this with the complexities of ‘populations’, ‘species’ and ‘extinctions’, and it gets complicated pretty quickly. Before reporting on the Living Planet Index we should understand what it actually tells us about the world’s wildlife. We should also be aware of the misconceptions and pitfalls of using this index to capture the changes in more than 30,000 of the world’s animal populations. # What does ‘average decline’ actually mean? The Living Planet Index (LPI) measures the _average change_ in the number of individuals across the world’s animal populations. A ‘population’ is defined as a species within a geographical area. So, despite being the same species, the African elephant in South Africa and Tanzania are counted as different populations. Let’s take a loo… | Living Planet Index: what does an average decline of 69% really mean? | |
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1 | 2024-06-12 14:47:37 | 2022-07-08 14:48:32 | 1970-01-01 00:00:00 | unlisted | ALBJ4LuBSnrcdZtFntu67GM5gzOaGoyJuSL3aB0Zy1eMODw3hdeL4dEHNp2WbLpOJR-pCi6RbnWItmchalSa5w | Farm Size and Productivity | ||
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1 | 2024-03-09 18:21:06 | 2022-11-30 11:54:16 | 2024-03-09 18:27:51 | listed | ALBJ4LuqiePBzN1VBmWjOHiMFab8IwIap0hSNnN2G3GSyk3XbKfOrakF2Om693xAfgmTLmITq99AHBSiSIT2aQ | There have been five big mass extinctions in Earth's history – these are called the "Big Five". Understanding the reasons and timelines of these events is important to understand the speed and scale of species extinctions today. When and why did these mass extinction events happen? # What is a mass extinction? First, we must be clear on what we mean by "mass extinction". Extinctions are a normal part of evolution: they occur naturally and periodically over time.1 There’s a natural background rate to the timing and frequency of extinctions: 10% of species are lost every million years, 30% every 10 million years, and 65% every 100 million years.2 It would be wrong to assume that species going extinct is out of line with what we would expect. Evolution occurs through the balance of _extinction_ – the end of species – and _speciation_ – the creation of new ones. Extinctions occur periodically at what we would call the "background rate". We can therefore identify periods of history when extinctions were happening much faster than this background rate – this would tell us that there was an additional environmental or ecological pressure creating more extinctions than we would expect. However, mass extinctions are periods with _much_ higher extinction rates than normal. They are defined by both magnitude and rate. Magnitude is the percentage of species that are lost. Rate is how quickly this happens. These metrics are inevitably linked, but we need both to qualify as a mass extinction. In a mass extinction, at least 75% of species go extinct within a relatively (by geological standard) short period of time.3 Typically less than two million years. # The five mass extinctions There have been five mass extinction events in Earth’s history, at least since 500 million years ago. We know very little about extinction events in the Precambrian and early Cambrian earlier, which predate this.4 These are called the "Big Five" for obvious reasons. In the chart, we see the timing of events in Earth’s history.5 It shows the… | There have been five mass extinctions in Earth's history | |
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1 | 2024-03-18 10:57:40 | 2024-05-28 12:19:29 | 2024-04-19 11:38:13 | unlisted | ALBJ4LsVGdz397rIjc-FLfO5XlUK43iwZHDsRBI52NcOJs2T7J7oo8S9tencpKxkR1yqrON61N7JbJ0C4pEHpA | ### Topics covered by Joe on Our World in Data * [Poverty](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1UjJLoGF5VMfn8U4C3ZSJQrPhc_jFRkeEhrhz5Ksfq7M/edit) * [Economic inequality](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yzOrFd6uWvrAl2oFB3S67oOSbhgL1ffPHxjAqS7i-4w/edit) * [Economic Growth](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1gVSV2gqzPSTMI80gmHEgbaKeWalj6daqe519RtZaJ7I/edit) ## Featured work * https://docs.google.com/document/d/1M2S6EP-CAZL1Oi4szQ5k0BiuPUdaUDbAXTCjnwsQK3o/edit ,* https://docs.google.com/document/d/1w6ymndlipKyB8QEQsvpMvB3qC9Fn1QiLAUV_nnjGWtc/edit ,* https://docs.google.com/document/d/17-2C6H3kPd7w9DxWT2RG2QuLP0Pzxvm4H2RVsWFWUzM/edit * [@JoeHasell](https://twitter.com/joehasell) Joe joined us in 2017. As Head of Product and Design, he coordinates efforts to develop tools and layouts that make our research and data more accessible and understandable. He also contributes as a researcher, where his work focuses on global trends in poverty and economic inequality. He is currently working towards a Ph.D. at the University of Oxford. | Joe Hasell | |
| 1wF6Z7SG8ZSaiB0Mhy1vuE4UZRTrYe_QK5mD9KTv1MfU | life-expectancy-how-is-it-calculated-and-how-should-it-be-interpreted | article | {
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"text": "The term \"life expectancy\" refers to the number of years a person can expect to live. By definition, life expectancy is based on an estimate of the average age that members of a particular population group will be when they die.",
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"text": " is the average life length of a particular cohort \u2013 a group of individuals born in a given year. When we can track a group of people born in a particular year, many decades ago, and observe the exact date in which each one of them died then we can calculate this ",
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"text": "It is of course not possible to know this metric before all members of the cohort have died. Because of that, statisticians commonly track members of a particular cohort and predict the average age-at-death for them using a combination of observed mortality rates for past years and projections about mortality rates for future years.",
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"text": "' and it is the much more commonly used life expectancy metric. It is the definition used by most international organizations, including the UN and the World Bank, when reporting 'life expectancy' figures. Period life expectancy estimates do not take into account how mortality rates are changing over time and instead only reflects the mortality pattern at one point in time. Because of this, period life expectancy figures are usually different to cohort life expectancy figures.",
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"text": "Since period life expectancy estimates are ubiquitous in research and public debate, it is helpful to use an example to flesh out the concept. Let's consider the map showing life expectancy\u2014specifically period life expectancy\u2014at birth in 2005. You can hover the mouse over a country to display the corresponding estimate.",
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"text": "For Japan, we can see that life expectancy in 2005 was 82.3 years. This means that a hypothetical cohort of infants living through the age-specific mortality of Japan in 2005 could expect to live 82.3 years, under the assumption that mortality patterns observed in 2005 remain constant throughout their lifetime. But if life expectancies are increasing the reality for a cohort born then is that the cohort life expectancy is higher than that period life expectancy. We see this in the data: if you move the slider below the map forward, you'll see that in 2019 the period life expectancy in Japan was 84.6 years, which means that mortality patterns in Japan did improve in the period 2005-2019.",
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"text": "For example, very few of the infants born in South Africa in 2009 will die at 52.2 years of age, as per the figures in the map above. Most will die much earlier or much later, since the risk of death is not uniform across the lifetime. Life expectancy is the average.",
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"text": "In societies with high infant mortality rates many people die in the first few years of life; but once they survive childhood, people often live much longer. Indeed, this is a common source of confusion in the interpretation of life expectancy figures: It is perfectly possible that a given population has a low life expectancy at birth, and yet has a large proportion of old people.",
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"text": "Given that life expectancy at birth is highly sensitive to the rate of death in the first few years of life, it is common to report life expectancy figures at different ages, both under the period and cohort approaches. For example, the UN estimates that ",
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"text": "the (period) global life expectancy at age 15 in 2005 was 73.6 years",
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"text": ". This means that the group of 15-year-old children alive around the world in 2005 could expect to live another 58.6 years (i.e. until the age of 73.6), provided that mortality patterns observed in 2005 remained constant throughout their lifetime.",
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"text": "Age-specific mortality rates are usually estimated by counting (or projecting) the number of age-specific deaths in a time interval (e.g. the number of people aged 10-15 who died in the year 2005), and dividing by the total observed (or projected) population alive at a given point within that interval (e.g. the number of people aged 10-15 alive on 1 July 2015).",
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"text": "Period life expectancy figures can be obtained from 'period life tables' (i.e. life tables that rely on age-specific mortality rates observed from deaths among individuals of different age groups at a fixed point in time). And similarly, cohort life expectancy figures can be obtained from 'cohort life tables' (i.e. life tables that rely on age-specific mortality rates observed from tracking and forecasting the death and survival of a group of people as they become older).",
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"text": "Life tables are not just instrumental to the production of life expectancy figures (as noted above), they also provide many other perspectives on the mortality of a population. For example, they allow for the production of 'population survival curves', which show the share of people who are expected to survive various successive ages. This chart provides an example, plotting survival curves for individuals born at different points in time, using cohort life tables from England and Wales.",
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"text": "At any age level in the horizontal axis, the curves in this visualization mark the estimated proportion of individuals who are expected to survive that age. As we can see, less than half of the people born in 1851 in England and Wales made it past their 50th birthday. In contrast, more than 95% of the people born in England and Wales today can expect to live longer than 50 years.",
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"subtitle": "How is life expectancy calculated and what does it mean? What\u2019s the difference between period and cohort life expectancy?",
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1 | 2023-10-12 10:51:44 | 2017-08-28 16:00:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LubkJPII2suDYjrYD70lUdXPiWMgYiZB9WLilrF6bY6ZokYphpSS2j-xhQAh2OayEcytlkcQaLamTJOUA | Life expectancy has [doubled in all world regions](https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy#twice-as-long-life-expectancy-around-the-world). What does this mean exactly? Despite its importance and prominence in research and policy, it is surprisingly difficult to find a simple yet detailed description of what “life expectancy” actually means. In this section, we try to fill this gap. The term "life expectancy" refers to the number of years a person can expect to live. By definition, life expectancy is based on an estimate of the average age that members of a particular population group will be when they die. In practice, however, things are often more complicated: One important distinction and clarification is the difference between _cohort_ and _period life expectancy._ The **cohort life expectancy** is the average life length of a particular cohort – a group of individuals born in a given year. When we can track a group of people born in a particular year, many decades ago, and observe the exact date in which each one of them died then we can calculate this _cohort's_ life expectancy by simply calculating the average of the ages of all members when they died. You can think of life expectancy in a particular year as the age a person born in that year would expect to live if the average age of death did not change over their lifetime. It is of course not possible to know this metric before all members of the cohort have died. Because of that, statisticians commonly track members of a particular cohort and predict the average age-at-death for them using a combination of observed mortality rates for past years and projections about mortality rates for future years. An alternative approach consists in estimating the average length of life for a _hypothetical_ cohort assumed to be exposed, from birth through death, to the mortality rates observed at one particular _period_ – commonly a year. This approach leads to what is known as '**period life expectancy**' and it is the much more commonly used life exp… | "Life Expectancy" – What does this actually mean? | |
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1 | 2024-02-01 10:59:13 | 2018-09-27 12:34:00 | 2024-02-02 13:30:04 | listed | ALBJ4LuHOCK-ZbQbRlIrV5PJ95N4YEQ42KhItIaL7itWhsDv86eotDmY6SHg8ogb4Mt6SiW4zxBkCX-r_ZL6Nw | Urban living is a relatively [recent feature](https://ourworldindata.org/urbanization#urbanization-over-the-very-long-term) of human history.1 In our entry on [Urbanization](https://ourworldindata.org/urbanization) we look at the long-run history of urban populations. By 1800, urban shares were [still well below 10 percent](https://ourworldindata.org/urbanization#urban-shares-over-the-last-500-years), even across today's rich countries.2 It wasn't until the 20th century that rates of urbanization really began to increase substantially. This is seen in the [second half of the century](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/urban-vs-rural-majority) in particular. But how urban is the world today? How many people live in urban areas? # What we know about urban populations and why it matters Before looking in more detail at the differences in estimates of urban populations, we should first clarify what we _do _know: * globally more people live in urbanized settings than not (disputes in these figures are all above the 50% urban mark); * the broad distribution and density of where people live across the world (sometimes at very high resolution); * although it can seem like our expanding cities take up a lot of land, only [around 1% of global land](https://ourworldindata.org/yields-and-land-use-in-agriculture#how-the-world-s-land-is-used-total-area-sizes-by-type-of-use-cover) is defined as built-up area;3 * rates of urbanization have been increasing rapidly across all regions (in 1800, less than 10% of people across all regions lived in urban areas); * urbanization is expected to continue to increase with rising incomes and [shifts away from employment in agriculture](https://ourworldindata.org/urbanization#agricultural-employment-vs-urbanization);4 * disagreements in urban population numbers arise from definition or boundary differences in what makes a population 'urban'. Whilst disagreement on the numbers can seem irrelevant, understanding cities, urbanization rates, the distribution, and the density of people ma… | How urban is the world? | |
| 1wCZsgwS9Tlh8ySeanWnDgoX-fVftlVgzTBW8N8FSQE8 | world-population-update-2022 | article | {
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1 | 2024-03-06 13:41:31 | 2022-07-11 16:10:00 | 2024-03-06 14:01:00 | listed | ALBJ4LsSnZcwsAn01Tno75ZXT4zRk-XowjDziW4isS6HknrNivptdbL3HaCLeCq_yhTKPNfITI8HVcl7Ws_oTQ | How many people are there in the world? How many die each year, and how many babies are born? These are key questions that we need to understand the world around us. The global population dataset is one of our most important at _Our World in Data_: it underpins nearly every topic we cover. The UN updates its [World Population Prospects](https://population.un.org/wpp/) every two years. Its latest release was due in 2021 but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. But, on World Population Day, the long-awaited dataset was released today. In this article, we highlight some key findings of the twenty-seventh publication of the ‘World Population Prospects.’ With early access to this new UN data, we have also published a new **[Population and Demography Data Explorer](http://ourworldindata.org/explorers/population-and-demography)**. You can explore this full dataset in detail for any country worldwide. # The world population will pass 8 billion at the end of 2022 Since 1975 the world has been adding another billion people [every 12 years](https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth#how-long-did-it-take-for-the-world-population-to-increase-by-one-billion). It passed its last milestone of 7 billion in 2011. And, by the end of 2022, another one will pass: **there will be 8 billion people worldwide.** While this absolute growth is similar to previous decades, the growth _rate_ continues to fall. Since 2019, the global population growth rate has fallen below 1%. That’s less than half its peak growth rate – of 2.3% – in the 1960s. As global fertility rates continue to fall (see below), this rate will continue to fall. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/population-and-demography?time=earliest..2099&facet=none&Metric=Population+growth+rate&Sex=Both+sexes&Age+group=Total&Projection+Scenario=None&country=~OWID_WRL&hideControls=true"/> # The UN estimates around 15 million excess deaths in 2020 and 2021 from the COVID-19 pandemic The Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has significantly impacted glo… | Five key findings from the 2022 UN Population Prospects | |
| 1wB1j4EqkugQ6f2k_xFD8NVpKErXoUpQSISSF3EMK4ig | iea-open-data | article | {
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"text": "This data exists. It is produced by the International Energy Agency (IEA). But the IEA only makes a fraction of their data publicly available, and keeps the rest behind very costly paywalls. This is despite the fact that the IEA is largely funded through public money from its member countries. The reason that the IEA puts much of its data behind paywalls is that the funders made it a requirement that it raises a small share of its budget through licensed data sales. As a consequence of this requirement the data is copyrighted under a strict data license; to access more than the very basic metrics, researchers and everyone else who wants to inform themselves about the global energy system needs to ",
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"text": " The gap between primary energy supply and final energy use is high for low-carbon energy sources and as the world adopts more of these energy sources the gap will increase. As an example: in the IEA and IRENA\u2019s global energy transition scenarios for 2\u00b0C, final energy consumption in 2050 is typically 30% to 33% lower than primary energy supply.",
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"text": "Final energy use is perhaps the most important energy statistic and should be at the center of the public discourse, but because no other institutions publish an international dataset on this metric, it is not. There are several other metrics of key importance for which only the IEA publishes internationally-comparable figures, including final energy use by energy source; allocation of energy to end-use sector; sector-specific energy use and CO\u2082 emissions (for example, no long-term time-series of aviation emissions exists in the public domain); CO\u2082 emissions from electricity; carbon intensity of electricity production; and power generation capacity by source to evaluate energy infrastructure timelines and potential stranded assets. There are also other important datasets \u2013 including Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) or the ",
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"text": " dataset\u00a0 \u2013 but none of these sources include the same detail as the data published by the IEA.",
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"text": ": since IEA data cannot be shared, researchers cannot share their analyses of IEA data, and their colleagues cannot build on their work. As a consequence,\u00a0thousands of researchers and analysts across the world derive the same statistics independently from each other and many hours of work are spent on the same analyses.",
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"text": ": many perspectives are excluded from research and academic debate \u2013 many researchers, especially in poorer\u00a0countries, cannot afford to buy the IEA data. Publicly available datasets on energy \u2013 such as BP \u2013 do not include low-income countries which means they are excluded from the conversation. As many of these countries make decisions about the future of their energy systems right now, it is vital that this data is available as soon as possible.",
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"text": ": since IEA data \u2013 and analyses built on top of this data \u2013 cannot be shared, verification is difficult and often impossible. Transparency and reproducibility are core principles in scientific research and neither the research that is based on IEA data nor the IEA itself (as every other group of researchers they also receive criticism for some aspects of their work) can adhere to this principle.",
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"text": ": the public needs to understand the problem of energy and climate change. The cost of accessing important data and the restrictions to use it in public however makes it difficult for journalists to do their work on these key global challenges.",
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"text": "It goes against the FAIR Guiding Principles \u2013 a set of principles agreed by stakeholders representing academia, industry, funding agencies, and scholarly publishers \u2013 for appropriate data management and stewardship in science.",
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"text": " The licensing model of the IEA is in conflict with at least three of these basic principles: Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable.",
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"text": "The current system has many downsides. Data restrictions make work more difficult for researchers \u2013 they duplicate efforts and cannot share their results freely. It means that policymakers often rely on research and commentary that is not based on the best data. It does not serve the IEA: it hinders its mission of leading the global dialogue on energy and means the immense value of its data and research team is under-utilized. Finally, it means the general public, journalists, innovators, or others interested in global energy and climate cannot properly engage in the conversation.",
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"text": "Because much of the research on energy and climate change is publicly funded, it is often also public money that pays for research to access IEA data; an absurd situation. The case for open energy data is not just a scientific and ethical one. There's an obvious economic case for it. The status quo where research efforts are duplicated, time is wasted, and in which researchers and decision-makers rely on sub-optimal data creates large systemic inefficiencies. The economic cost of these inefficiencies likely dwarfs the small funding gap imposed on the IEA by the governments of its member countries.",
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"text": "In addition to climate change there is another reason that high-quality, open data is so important: energy security and dependency. It\u2019s a reason we often overlook but the war in Ukraine has now brought into sharp focus.",
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"text": "To understand energy dependency and security we need to know which countries buy fuels from Russia and how much; which other countries have fuel reserves and could supply them instead; whether alternative sources of energy could be used.",
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"text": "Researchers across the world have been doing their best to work through the data and provide a clear picture. But it has been difficult. No single source in the public domain provides this data at a global level. Instead, researchers have had to scramble around, trying to find any nugget of data they can.",
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"text": "available. It is published by the IEA. But nearly all of it requires a paid subscription and prohibits the sharing of this data.",
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"text": " \u2013 is free to access (with an account) and provides monthly country-to-country data on gas trade between European countries. This is useful but inadequate. Its full datasets on ",
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"text": "Without access to this data \u2013 or the ability to share it freely and transparently \u2013 researchers have to find alternatives. These can fill some gaps, but not all of them. Policymakers are then making important decisions based on incomplete information. It doesn\u2019t have to be this way.",
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"text": "The costs of this alone far, far outstrip the five to six million Euros that would be required to make the IEA data public.",
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"text": "The challenge of making international data publicly available is not a new one. The late statistician Hans Rosling ",
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"text": " some of the large international organizations with chronic cases of DBHD or \u201cDatabase Hugging Disorder\u201d.",
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"text": "But while other institutions were cured of DBHD and have much improved the access to the data they produced, the energy and climate sector remains one of the few \u2013 if not the only \u2013 research area that lags far behind. To understand global food systems and nutrition the world can rely on the data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (UN FAO); in global health we have the World Health Organization (WHO); in poverty and inequality we can rely on the data from the World Bank; in water and sanitation we have the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP). All of these institutions are largely publicly funded and all of them make their databases available as a public good, free and open-access for everyone. In this regard, energy is now the outlier among the world\u2019s large global problems.",
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"text": "Many studies have illustrated the large social and economic benefits of public data. The World Bank \u2013 which previously had a similar data licensing model as the IEA \u2013 has now published a number of flagship reports highlighting the economic benefits of open data, and its critical role in sustainable development.",
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"text": " One of its studies estimated that in the EU alone, open government data provided an economic value of 40 billion euros per year.",
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"text": " The most widely-cited estimate of the economic value of open data globally \u2013 across both public and private sectors \u2013 comes from the McKinsey Global Institute: it estimated that open data across seven sectors could create 3 to 5 trillion dollars of economic value per year.",
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"text": " Energy and transport were some of the most valuable sectors, with 340 to 580 billion dollars in electricity; 240 to 510 billion dollars in oil and gas; and 720 to 920 in transport. The funding that would make the IEA data publicly available is a very small fraction of these sums.",
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"text": "At the national level many countries have highlighted the value of open energy data too. For example, the UK government and energy regulator (Ofgem) commissioned an Energy Data Taskforce to investigate the role of data in decarbonizing the national grid.",
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"text": " It found that open data-sharing was crucial to the energy transition: it facilitated improved understanding of balancing supply and demand; increased the efficiency of grid operations; reduced energy costs; and lowered the barrier of entry to innovators. The benefits we see at the national level should be transferable to understanding the global energy transition as a whole.",
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"text": "Faced with the urgent and global challenges of global energy access and climate change, accessing the basic data should not be this difficult.\u00a0 Making this data free and accessible for everyone is a very basic \u2013 but critical \u2013 first step. If we cannot even manage this, what are our chances of tackling the much bigger international problems facing us?",
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"text": "What can you do to help?",
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"text": "To fix this problem, the energy ministries that provide finance to the IEA need to change the restrictions on their funding contributions and close the small 5 to 6 million EUR gap.",
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"text": "You find the list of the 30 IEA member countries ",
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"text": ". If you want to help move this discussion forward, you can contact your respective energy ministry and ask them to change it. Skander Garroum and Christoph Proeschel ",
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"text": " to make this process easier: just select your country and it will find your representative and draft a petition email for you.",
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"text": "This article was first published on October 7, 2021. It was updated on March 18 2022, with the addition of the section ",
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"text": "Read our article, published in Nature, on the need for open, global data to make progress on climate, energy and other pressing problems:",
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"url": "https://forum.openmod.org/t/open-letter-to-iea-and-member-countries-requesting-open-data/2949",
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"text": "Open letter to the International Energy Agency and its member countries: please remove paywalls from global energy data and add appropriate open licenses",
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"text": " \u2013 Robbie Morrison, Malte Schaefer and the OpenMod community",
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"text": "Energy watchdog urged to give free access to government data",
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"text": " \u2013 Jillian Ambrose, in ",
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"url": "https://web.archive.org/web/20211219063050/https://www.devex.com/news/opinion-opening-up-energy-data-is-critical-to-battling-climate-change-102313",
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"text": "Opening up energy data is critical to battling climate change",
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"text": " \u2013 Christa Hasenkopf, in ",
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"text": " \u2013 Stefan Pfenninger, in ",
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"text": "\u2192 Bazilian, M., & Rice, A., Rotich, J., Howells, M., DeCarolis, J., Macmillan, S., Brooks, C., Bauer, F., & Liebreich, M. (2012). \"",
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1 | 2024-02-01 14:25:48 | 2022-03-18 11:00:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LsdE4EBtb456w8ouh2fr9UDvuCe9jQYKP1tyLbnAbJKr5NkIXQg3UEFkRDDhFWNA-WiDGw1HoKEijP2Hg | <Callout /> Transitioning to a low-carbon energy system is one of humanity's most pressing challenges. Since 87% of annual carbon dioxide emissions [come from the energy](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-co2-emissions-fossil-land?country=~OWID_WRL) and industrial sectors, this transition is essential to address climate change.1 At the same time the provision of clean energy is also a priority for global health and human development: 10% do not have [access to electricity](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-the-population-with-access-to-electricity?tab=chart&country=~OWID_WRL); 41% do not have [access to clean fuels for cooking](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/access-to-clean-fuels-and-technologies-for-cooking?tab=chart&country=~OWID_WRL), and estimates of the health burden of anthropogenic [outdoor air pollution](http://ourworldindata.org/outdoor-air-pollution) range from 4 to over 10 million premature deaths per year. To understand the problems the world faces and see how we can make progress we need accessible, high-quality data. It needs to be global in scope – leaving no country absent from the conversation – and it needs to cover the range of metrics needed to understand the energy system: this includes primary energy, final energy, useful energy, the breakdown of the electricity mix, end-sector breakdowns of energy consumption, and the CO2 emissions that each sector produces. This data exists. It is produced by the International Energy Agency (IEA). But the IEA only makes a fraction of their data publicly available, and keeps the rest behind very costly paywalls. This is despite the fact that the IEA is largely funded through public money from its member countries. The reason that the IEA puts much of its data behind paywalls is that the funders made it a requirement that it raises a small share of its budget through licensed data sales. As a consequence of this requirement the data is copyrighted under a strict data license; to access more than the very basic metrics, researchers an… | The International Energy Agency publishes the detailed, global energy data we all need, but its funders force it behind paywalls. Let's ask them to change it. | |
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"text": " These estimates of the annual number of deaths by cause are shown here. This chart shows the global total but can be explored for any country or region using the \"Change country\" button.",
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"text": "On this interactive map, we see the share of deaths that resulted from HIV/AIDS across the world. Across most regions, the share was low: across Europe, for example, it accounted for less than 0.1% of deaths.",
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"text": "In the interactive map, we see the distribution of death rates worldwide. Most countries have a rate of less than 10 deaths per 100,000 \u2013 often much lower, below 5 per 100,000. Across Europe, the death rate is less than one per 100,000.",
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"text": "In the chart, we show death rates by age group. Here we see that the most at-risk group is younger adults (15 to 49-year-olds). Since HIV is primarily a sexually transmitted infection, where unsafe sex is a primary risk factor, this is what we would expect.",
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"text": "The 1990s saw a substantial increase in people infected with HIV and dying of AIDS.",
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"text": "In the second half of that decade, over 3 million people were infected with HIV yearly. Since then, the number of new infections began to decline, and it's now below 2 million, the lowest number of new infections since 1990.",
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"text": "As for mortality, AIDS-related deaths increased throughout the 1990s and peaked in the mid-2000s, with nearly 2 million annual deaths. Since then, the annual number of deaths from AIDS has declined and since halved. 2016 was the first year since the peak in which fewer than 1 million people died from AIDS.",
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"text": "In the visualization, we see the change in the share of deaths from HIV/AIDS over time. From the 1990s through to the early 2000s, it was the cause of more than 1 in 3 deaths in several countries and even more than half of annual deaths in the late 1990s in Zimbabwe.",
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"text": "We see a dramatic drop in life expectancy starting around 1990, coinciding with the rise of HIV. In Botswana, life expectancy fell by a decade; in Eswatini, it fell by two decades. Since the early 2000s \u2014 as progress has been made in tackling HIV \u2014 we see that life expectancy has been rising again.",
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"text": "As we see, HIV prevalence tends to be higher in women across Sub-Saharan Africa, although higher in males across most other regions. The trend in AIDS-related deaths shows the opposite: more men tend to die from AIDS every year than women. The reasons for differences in prevalence and death rates are complex; however, across Sub-Saharan Africa, women tend to be infected with HIV earlier than men and survive longer (explaining both the higher prevalence and lower annual AIDS deaths in women). Several gender inequality and social norm issues result in a higher prevalence of HIV in females across many countries; women are at greater risk when they have a limited role in sexual decision-making and protection, lower rates of sexual education, and higher rates of transactional sex",
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"text": "When children are infected with HIV, transmission has typically occurred from the mother either during pregnancy or childbirth or through breastfeeding. This is called mother-to-child-transmission, or MTCT. This map shows the total number of children aged 14 and under living with HIV. Globally the number of children living with HIV peaked in 2005 at approximately 2.6 million.",
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"text": "The map shows the total number of children newly infected with HIV yearly. Globally\u00a0\u2014 with similar trends at national levels\u00a0\u2014 the number of new infections in children peaked around the early 2000s (with over 500,000 new infections per year globally), followed by a rapid decline over the last decade.",
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"text": "Some children have lost either one or both parents to AIDS. This does not necessarily imply that children orphaned by AIDS have HIV themselves (although, in some cases, HIV has been transmitted from mother to child). The chart shows the number of children (aged 17 and under) orphaned from AIDS deaths.",
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"text": "Tuberculosis (TB) is the leading HIV-associated opportunistic infection in low- and middle-income countries, and it is a leading cause of death globally among people living with HIV. Death due to tuberculosis remains high among people living with HIV. However, the number of deaths is decreasing. Most of the global mortality due to TB among those with HIV is from cases in Sub-Saharan Africa.",
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"text": "A couple of decades ago, the chances of surviving more than ten years with HIV were slim. Today, thanks to antiretroviral therapy (ART), people with HIV/AIDS can expect to live long lives.",
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"text": "ART is a long-term medical treatment for HIV/AIDS. It works by suppressing the virus from multiplying in the body. This keeps the infection under control and helps to prevent the disease from progressing. ART is essential in progressing against HIV/AIDS because it saves lives, allows people with HIV to live longer, and prevents new HIV infections.\u00a0Read more in our article:",
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"text": "Given that most AIDS cases in children are due to the virus transmission from mother to child during pregnancy, stopping mother-to-child transmission is critical to preventing children from getting infected with HIV.",
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"text": "The chances of an HIV-positive mother transmitting the virus to a child are between 15% and 45%. Effective prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) services can reduce the chances of transmission to newborns down to 5%.",
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"text": "This visualization shows the number of child infections averted by ART coverage in mothers.",
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1 | 2023-11-10 15:01:06 | 2023-08-01 14:01:51 | 2024-02-28 15:16:19 | unlisted | ALBJ4LvGgphFfUe64UqK084il7_KCw6-NdcJERo-T2Cq-_eDa4qk_RowUahsocJ6zkQP8sY7JIDC07a2SPn_RA | Infection with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). AIDS results in a gradual and persistent decline and failure of the immune system, resulting in a heightened risk of life-threatening infection and [cancers](https://ourworldindata.org/cancer). In the majority of cases, HIV is a sexually transmitted infection. However, HIV can also be transmitted from mother to child, during pregnancy or childbirth, or through breastfeeding. Non-sexual transmission can also occur by sharing injection equipment such as needles. Other research and writing on HIV/AIDS on Our World in Data: * [Antiretroviral therapy has saved millions of lives from AIDS and could save more](https://ourworldindata.org/art-lives-saved) **[See all interactive charts on HIV/AIDS ↓ ](#all-charts)** # HIV/AIDS is one of the world's most fatal infectious disease ## Almost 1 million people die from HIV/AIDS each year; in some countries, it's the leading cause of death HIV/AIDS is one of the world's most fatal infectious diseases – particularly across Sub-Saharan Africa, where the disease has had a massive impact on health outcomes and life expectancy in recent decades. The _Global Burden of Disease_ is a major global study on the causes of death and disease published in the medical journal _The Lancet_.1 These estimates of the annual number of deaths by cause are shown here. This chart shows the global total but can be explored for any country or region using the "Change country" button. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-number-of-deaths-by-cause"/> According to the _Global Burden of Disease_ study, nearly a million people die yearly from HIV/AIDS. To put this into context: this is just over 50% higher than the number of deaths from [malaria](https://ourworldindata.org/malaria). It's _one of_ the largest killers globally, but for some countries – particularly across Sub-Saharan Africa, it's the _leading_ cause of death. # The global distribution of deaths from HIV/AIDS ## I… | HIV / AIDS | |
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1 | 2022-10-11 18:49:51 | 2023-07-18 14:13:33 | 2023-12-28 16:31:12 | unlisted | AGEZuMGHZewGz5yd2isVQ9CCKpVHUqFlmx3VtJiFVsi7ECaYT58fi2vygGPf9tOv-t4KFQsnorDuUv8DXj1CkA | [
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_Sustainable Development Goal 6 is to “ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”, __[according to the United Nations](https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/)__._ The visualizations and data below present the global perspective on where the world stands today and how it has changed over time. More details can be found in the _Our World in Data_ topic pages on [Clean Water](https://ourworldindata.org/water-access) and [Sanitation](https://ourworldindata.org/sanitation). The [UN has defined](https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/Global%20Indicator%20Framework%20after%202023%20refinement_Eng.pdf) 8 _targets_ and 11 _indicators_ for SDG 6. Targets specify the goals and indicators represent the metrics by which the world aims to track whether these targets are achieved. Below we quote the original text of all targets and show the data on the agreed indicators. ## Target 6.1 Safe and affordable drinking water ### SDG Indicator 6.1.1 Safe drinking water **Definition of the SDG indicator:** Indicator 6.1.1 is the “proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services” in the_ _[UN SDG framework](https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/Global%20Indicator%20Framework%20after%202023%20refinement_Eng.pdf). A safely managed drinking water service is defined as an improved source located on premises, available when needed and free from faecal (_E.coli _or thermotolerant coliforms) and priority chemical contamination (from arsenic and fluoride). The interactive visualizations show data for this indicator. The first chart shows the proportion of the population of countries who use safely managed drinking water, and the second chart shows how these proportions compare across rural and urban populations of a given country. **Target:** By 2030 “achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all”. **More research:** Further data and research on this topic can be found at the _Our World in Data_ topic page on [Wate… | Ensure access to water and sanitation for all |
| 1w6ymndlipKyB8QEQsvpMvB3qC9Fn1QiLAUV_nnjGWtc | income-inequality-before-and-after-taxes | article | {
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"text": "Unsurprisingly, the level of inequality when measured before and after tax can differ substantially. The difference reflects the extent of redistribution achieved through a country\u2019s tax and benefits system.",
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"text": " \u2013 for both definitions of income for the United States. The higher the Gini, the more unequal incomes are. We see that, after taxes and benefits, inequality in the US is reduced substantially: the incomes of poorer households ",
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"text": "The following charts take a look across countries using similar data from another source.",
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"text": " in different countries against each other. Three diagonal lines are shown for reference. Along the top \u2018No reduction\u2019 line, inequality does not change after redistribution. The further a country falls below this line, the greater the reduction in inequality seen after taxes and benefits. Along the middle reference line, the Gini falls by a third; along the bottom line, it falls by one-half.",
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"text": "However, the chart also shows the large variation in the extent of redistribution governments achieve through taxes and benefits. Countries as diverse as Belgium, Spain, Japan, the US, Turkey, and Chile all have a similar degree of inequality before taxes \u2013 a Gini coefficient around 0.5. But they achieve very different levels of redistribution. In Chile, taxes and benefits reduce inequality only slightly. In the US, the Gini falls by around a fifth. In Japan, it falls by around a third. In Belgium, inequality is reduced by almost half. Although before-tax inequality is similar in these countries, their levels of after-tax inequality are very different.",
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"text": "It is important to bear in mind that the before-tax distribution of income is already the result of choices made by individuals who take taxes and benefits into consideration. Although before-tax income is sometimes referred to as \u2018market income\u2019, it would be wrong to think the way it is distributed reflects market forces alone, as if no government tax-and-benefits policies existed. You may, for example, be reluctant to increase your working hours if you know that doing so would put you in a different tax bracket.",
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"text": "Another example can be found in the work of Thomas Piketty, Emmanuel Saez, and Stefanie Stancheva (2014), who point to evidence that decreasing top marginal tax rates incentivizes top earners, like CEOs, to bargain more aggressively for higher remuneration, thereby increasing pre-tax wage inequality.",
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"text": " redistributive taxes and benefits are reflected in this data. Indirect taxes, such as VAT, are not deducted when measuring after-tax income. VAT is a tax on consumption, and because poorer people spend a higher share of their income on average (or save a lower share), some consider such taxes to increase inequality.",
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"text": " tax revenue. The provision of public goods contributes substantially to people\u2019s standard of living and in many cases \u2013 such as subsidized housing, public education, or healthcare \u2013 it may benefit poorer households disproportionately. As with the data shown in this article, most estimates of after-tax income inequality do not account for such non-cash or in-kind benefits given the difficulty of valuing such benefits and attributing to them to individuals.",
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1 | 2023-06-30 12:17:05 | 2023-07-03 04:04:55 | 2024-02-02 18:50:27 | listed | ALBJ4LtVY10Zbbd9ocE735aTjhtnufNfO961d_eUK8QU8khLEtmyXYlIuhjg5yb1vN7uHx1X6_vJwQIg1nS2Vg | When interpreting data on inequality, it's important to be clear about what is being measured: inequality of _what?_1 Usually, it is the inequality of _i__ncomes_, but even here, there are different concepts to be aware of. The two definitions of income most commonly used are: * Incomes counted _before_ people have paid taxes and received any benefits from the government; * Incomes counted _after_ such transfers. Unsurprisingly, the level of inequality when measured before and after tax can differ substantially. The difference reflects the extent of redistribution achieved through a country’s tax and benefits system.2 The chart below shows a measure of inequality – the Gini coefficient – for both definitions of income for the United States. The higher the Gini, the more unequal incomes are. We see that, after taxes and benefits, inequality in the US is reduced substantially: the incomes of poorer households [are higher](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/incomes-across-distribution-lis?time=1963..latest&country=~USA&hideControls=true&Indicator=Mean+income+or+consumption%2C+by+decile&Decile=1+%28poorest%29&Income+measure=After+tax+vs.+before+tax&Period=Year&Adjust+for+cost+sharing+within+households+%28equivalized+income%29=true), and the incomes of richer households [are lower](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/incomes-across-distribution-lis?time=1963..latest&country=~USA&hideControls=true&Indicator=Mean+income+or+consumption%2C+by+decile&Decile=10+%28richest%29&Income+measure=After+tax+vs.+before+tax&Period=Year&Adjust+for+cost+sharing+within+households+%28equivalized+income%29=true). You can select other countries in the chart using the ‘Change country or region’ option within the chart. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gini-coefficient-before-and-after-tax-lis?country=~USA"/> # The extent of income redistribution in different countries The following charts take a look across countries using similar data from another source.3 The following scatter chart shows the before-tax and after… | Income inequality before and after taxes: How much do countries redistribute income? | |
| 1w57_m0ejckQlpRn57XuHMFTKAOn24-7kdAWL2WBOXxE | where-does-plastic-accumulate | article | {
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"text": " In 2010 \u2013 the year for which we have the latest estimates \u2013 that was around 8 million tonnes.",
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"text": "Most of the plastic materials we produce are less dense than water and should therefore float at the ocean surface. But our best estimates of the amount of plastic afloat at sea are orders of magnitude lower than the amount of plastic that enters our oceans in a single year: as we show in the visualization, it\u2019s far lower than 8 million tonnes and instead in the order of 10s to 100s of thousands of tonnes. One of the most widely-quoted estimates is 250,000 tonnes.",
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"text": "If we currently pollute our oceans with millions of tonnes of plastic each year, we must have released tens of millions of tonnes in recent decades. Why then do we find at least 100 times less plastics in our surface waters?",
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"text": " It\u2019s a conundrum we need to address if we want to understand where plastic waste could end up, and what its impacts might be for wildlife, ecosystems and health.",
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"text": "One possibility is that it is due to imprecise measurement: we might either grossly overestimate the amount of plastic waste we release into the ocean, or underestimate the amount floating in the surface ocean. Whilst we know that tracking ocean plastic inputs and their distribution is notoriously difficult",
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"text": "Another popular hypothesis is that ultraviolet light (UV) and mechanical wave forces break large pieces of plastic into smaller ones.These smaller particles, referred to as microplastics, are much more easily incorporated into sediments or ingested by organisms. And this is where the missing plastic might end up.",
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"text": "One proposed \u2018sink\u2019 for ocean plastics was deep-sea sediments; a study which sampled deep-sea sediments across several basins found that microplastic was up to four orders of magnitude more abundant (per unit volume) in deep-sea sediments from the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean than in plastic-polluted surface waters.",
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1 | 2024-02-08 20:19:37 | 2019-09-24 08:00:48 | 2024-02-09 11:14:03 | listed | ALBJ4LuTmeJ3EmPS3Ek-swNY8fBYro0xipD8BLrJGYoqRMm4R9C_OqPsRXy98srSztbW1NyL1JjZJ0vOBfF7Hg | The world now produces more than [380 million tonnes](https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution#how-much-plastic-does-the-world-produce) of plastic every year, which could end up as pollutants, entering our natural environment and oceans. Of course, not all of our plastic waste ends up in the ocean, most ends up in landfills: it’s estimated that the share of global plastic waste that enters the ocean is around 3%.1 In 2010 – the year for which we have the latest estimates – that was around 8 million tonnes.2 Most of the plastic materials we produce are less dense than water and should therefore float at the ocean surface. But our best estimates of the amount of plastic afloat at sea are orders of magnitude lower than the amount of plastic that enters our oceans in a single year: as we show in the visualization, it’s far lower than 8 million tonnes and instead in the order of 10s to 100s of thousands of tonnes. One of the most widely-quoted estimates is 250,000 tonnes.3 If we currently pollute our oceans with millions of tonnes of plastic each year, we must have released tens of millions of tonnes in recent decades. Why then do we find at least 100 times less plastics in our surface waters? This discrepancy is often referred to as the ‘missing plastic problem’.4 It’s a conundrum we need to address if we want to understand where plastic waste could end up, and what its impacts might be for wildlife, ecosystems and health. <Image filename="Pathway-of-plastic-to-ocean.png" alt=""/> # The ‘missing plastic problem’ There are several hypotheses to explain the ‘missing plastic problem’. One possibility is that it is due to imprecise measurement: we might either grossly overestimate the amount of plastic waste we release into the ocean, or underestimate the amount floating in the surface ocean. Whilst we know that tracking ocean plastic inputs and their distribution is notoriously difficult5 the levels of uncertainty in these measurements are much less than the several orders of magnitude that would be needed t… | Where does our plastic accumulate in the ocean and what does that mean for the future? | |
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1 | 2024-04-26 15:59:42 | 2024-05-09 07:00:29 | 2024-05-08 06:13:55 | unlisted | ALBJ4LsZKaIToD1osO6JPuoyCJsmA8A6ZuqtvRjhvZCaJOO7jCz3uJvLj393YCT1MPSl4ul0rhAnj2yVf1vi0w | <Image filename="share-of-potential-polio-cases-with-adequate-stool-collection-desktop.png"/> The world is close to eradicating polio. Annual cases have dropped from an [estimated 400,000](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-of-estimated-paralytic-polio-cases-by-world-region) in the 1980s to less than 4,000 in recent years. But, to cross the finish line, sufficient testing is crucial to ensure that cases aren’t missed. The World Health Organization recommends that at least 80% of potential polio cases be tested for the virus. Potential cases are identified based on “acute flaccid paralysis”, a sudden onset of paralysis in the limbs. As shown in the chart, disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic led to a [drop in polio testing rates](https://ourworldindata.org/polio-testing) in many countries. Thankfully, this new data shows that polio testing has rebounded. This is due to the dedicated effort of countless health workers and opens the way to a future free from polio. | Testing rates for polio have rebounded after a drop amid the COVID-19 pandemic | |
| 1vudtwtn6RQAbTEJlioxxvTCVWwI8fIQeRIGj1h9AokA | the-price-of-computer-storage-has-fallen-exponentially-since-the-1950s | data-insight | {
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1 | 2024-05-13 14:34:37 | 2024-05-21 06:43:44 | 2024-05-16 09:46:39 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lt4uhNjhoY0bMtb-sWpArMVN9-kPc6gNKOmmoivYmVbL-9SyTPSBFH00orGZuphjfI68a0GBPH1EGLCkA | <Image filename="historical-cost-of-computer-memory-and-storage-desktop.png"/> This chart shows the dramatic fall in the price of various computer storage types between 1956 and 2023. It relies on the data carefully collected by the computer scientist John C. McCallum. In the last 70 years, the price for a given unit of storage has been divided by almost nine orders of magnitude. A 256-gigabyte storage capacity, commonly found in standard laptops sold today, would have cost around 2 billion dollars in the 1950s. But price has not been the only improvement: modern solid-state drives offer vastly faster and more reliable data access than early magnetic and hard disk drives. [Read more on the exponential growth of computing capabilities](https://ourworldindata.org/moores-law) → | The price of computer storage has fallen exponentially since the 1950s | |
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"text": " in the atmosphere is not the only metric we care about: there is a complex range of socioeconomic factors (such as the livelihoods of people who work in the farming sector) to consider. What we\u2019re doing here is presenting the scientific understanding of what happens to one of those elements \u2013 carbon \u2013 across a range of possible futures.\u00a0 It\u2019s up to society to decide what it should do, given the choices available.",
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"text": "Here, we look at the impact our dietary choices could have when we factor in the opportunity costs. If the world gave up meat and dairy completely, how much carbon would we possibly save? Do we need to go vegan to make a big difference?",
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"text": "Let\u2019s first see how taking opportunity costs into account affect the comparisons of individual food items.",
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"text": "In the chart here we see the comparison of the carbon costs of different meat and dairy foods, and high-protein substitutes.",
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"text": " In brown we see the emissions from food ",
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"text": " \u2013 this is the metric that almost everyone uses to compare products. This tells us how much greenhouse gases have been emitted to produce the food over the full supply chain \u2013 from farm to supermarket. In green we see the ",
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"text": ": this is the amount of carbon that could be stored on the land if we would decide to abandon it and let natural vegetation regrow.",
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"text": "As we\u2019d expect, because livestock such as cows and sheep need a lot of land, they have much higher opportunity costs. Producing one kilogram of beef can have total carbon costs at least ten times higher than protein-rich alternatives such as tofu or tempeh. In extreme cases, where beef and lamb are produced at low intensities \u2013 such as in Brazil \u2013 the opportunity costs of agricultural land are huge. Total carbon costs can be as much as 100 times higher than the alternatives.",
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"text": "What this also makes clear is that we can save a lot of carbon by making wiser choices about where to produce our food. Producing food where the yields are high reduces the amount of land we need for agriculture, giving us the opportunity to store carbon in forests and grasslands.",
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"text": "Of course, for proper nutrition and health we need to eat a diverse range of foods. So let\u2019s see how different diets \u2013 rather than individual foods \u2013 compare.",
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"text": " In the chart we see the potential carbon reductions that we could achieve through dietary changes across the world. This measures \u2013 in brown \u2013 the annual reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions from food if everyone in the world adopted a given diet. In green we see the amount of carbon that could additionally be sequestered in restored vegetation and soils.",
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"text": " This sequestration in restored vegetation represents how much carbon is stored as forests, grasslands and other landscapes grow back. Obviously these plants won\u2019t keep growing forever. Eventually regrowth will level off, but it will take many decades to get there. In the next section we will look at the maximum amount of carbon that could be stored once vegetation stops regrowing.",
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"text": "If people decided to cut out beef and lamb, we would reduce emissions by 2.6 GtCO",
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"text": "e per year (a 20% reduction), and save an additional 4.5 GtCO",
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"text": "e by restoring vegetation on abandoned farmland. If we also cut out dairy we could save 12.3 GtCO",
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"text": "What\u2019s interesting is that most of the carbon reductions come from cutting out beef and dairy. This means eating chicken, pork, fish or plant-based substitutes is the most effective way to reduce the land use and carbon impact of your diet.",
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"text": "If everyone would decide to become vegan we would achieve the largest carbon reduction. We could halve annual emissions from food production. And, as we saw in a ",
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"text": ", switching to a vegan diet would reduce our agricultural land use by 75%. This means we could sequester an additional 8 billion tonnes of CO",
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"text": " in vegetation and soils each year. Combined, this would reduce greenhouse gases by 14.7 billion tonnes of CO",
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"text": " carbon reductions \u2013 the amount that\u2019s absorbed as vegetation is regrowing. But there is a limit to how much carbon we can possibly store in the world\u2019s vegetation. If we abandoned our farmland, forests, grasslands and other vegetation would regrow over the course of many decades. They\u2019d be sequestering more and more carbon as they go. But eventually this growth will level off: they will continue to store carbon, but not sequester more and more.",
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"text": "To understand how much carbon the world could save, researchers Matthew Hayek, Helen Harwatt, William Ripple and Nathaniel Mueller estimated the ",
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"text": " carbon opportunity costs of global dietary change.",
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"text": " They looked at the changes in carbon that could be sequestered if everyone in the world adopted a given diet today, under three scenarios.",
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"text": "The change of global diets up until 2050 follows a similar trajectory to the past \u2013 meat and dairy consumption in lower- and middle-income countries rises as they get richer, ",
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"text": " In a hypothetical scenario in which everyone in the world went vegan by 2050, the regrowth of trees and wilderness could sequester around 547 billion tonnes of additional CO",
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"text": ". Each year we emit ",
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"text": " from fossil fuels, so that\u2019s equal to around 15 years of emissions at our current levels.",
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"text": " They also estimate an additional 225\u2009billion tonnes of CO",
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"text": " Relative to the 2050 \u2018business-as-usual\u2019 diet, it reduces beef consumption by 80%; lamb by 70%; milk by 27%; pork by 87%; chicken by 49%; and eggs by 52%. This is a diet in which everyone would eat on average 47 grams of beef per week (equivalent to one burger); 19 grams of lamb; one to two rashers of bacon; a few portions of chicken; and one to two eggs. It also includes around 200 grams of dairy (milk, cheese, yoghurt and other dairy products) per day.\u00a0A shift towards this more plant-based would save 332 billion tonnes of CO",
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"text": " They also estimate an additional 135\u2009billion tonnes of CO",
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"text": "Dietary changes could double our carbon budget for 1.5\u00b0C \u2013 but it\u2019s no substitute for getting off fossil fuels",
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"text": "Let\u2019s put these numbers in the context of our global carbon budget. Our \u2018carbon budget\u2019 is an estimate of how much carbon we can emit from this point forward and still keep global temperature rise below a given threshold.",
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"text": " We see that if everyone adopted a vegan diet, by 2050 we could increase our carbon budget for 1.5\u2103 by 125%; we would more than double our budget. If we adopted a reduced meat diet, we\u2019d still increase our budget by 75%.",
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"text": " we could sequester from a vegan diet is equal to 16 years of current fossil fuel emissions. If we don\u2019t change how we ",
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"text": "Many thanks to Matthew Hayek and Joseph Poore for providing feedback and comments on this article.",
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"excerpt": "What are the carbon opportunity costs of our diet? How much carbon could we store by regrowing forests and wild habitats on existing farmland?",
"dateline": "March 19, 2021",
"subtitle": "What are the carbon opportunity costs of our diet? How much carbon could we store by regrowing forests and wild habitats on existing farmland?",
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1 | 2024-02-22 11:50:58 | 2021-03-19 11:00:00 | 2024-02-22 12:03:05 | listed | ALBJ4LuNzfRE0zH1daxQ9XOl_hwX6C5SswvRqbsCEPJRHwqLpuc0H3YNXwb1as6ah6tK83ecn-bKVYkBfSXZvA | <Callout title="Summary"/> Over the last 10,000 years agricultural land has expanded into forests, wild grasslands and other ecosystems. The world [lost one-third of its forests](https://ourworldindata.org/world-lost-one-third-forests), and today agricultural land makes up [half of the world’s ice- and desert-free land](https://ourworldindata.org/global-land-for-agriculture). The loss of these forests and other natural vegetation has released a lot of carbon into the atmosphere: we have emitted around 1400 billion tonnes of CO2 over millennia.1 That’s equal to 40 years’ worth of our current emissions from fossil fuels.2 It can be easy to forget about these emissions that happened decades, centuries, or even millennia ago. We tend to only focus on emissions _today_. This undersells the role that our agricultural land use could play in tackling climate change. In this article I’ll explain why this is the case. To understand this we need to consider one of the key concepts in economics: opportunity costs. An opportunity cost is the potential benefit you’re giving up by choosing one option over the other. Every decision you make has an opportunity cost – you could be spending your time or money on something else. Spending time watching television comes at the ‘cost’ of not reading a book or not visiting a friend. Choosing pizza comes at the cost of not having pasta instead. In the standard framework of counting greenhouse gas emissions, opportunity costs are not taken into account. The ‘carbon footprint’ figures usually reported for different foods are based on greenhouse gas _emissions today_: how much nitrous oxide is produced when we add fertilizers; methane released by cows; carbon released when we cut down forest and replace it with crops. Land use is not included unless it _changed_ in the last year. The opportunity costs of land are the possible alternative uses for this land. If we weren’t using it to grow crops or raise livestock, it could be restored to forest or wild grasslands. Restoring these coul… | What are the carbon opportunity costs of our food? | |
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"text": "But to understand one of the world\u2019s biggest problems that comes with energy poverty we need to zoom in to what\u2019s happening within family households around the world. More specifically, we need to take a look in the world\u2019s kitchens. In high-income countries, people use electricity or gas to cook a meal. But 40% of the world do not have access to these clean, modern energy sources for cooking. What do they rely on instead?",
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"text": "The visualization below is the World Health Organization's answer.",
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"text": " The so-called \u2018Energy Ladder\u2019 shows the dominant sources of household energy at different levels of income. From very low incomes on the left to high incomes on the right.",
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"text": "The poorest households burn wood and other biomass, like crop waste and dried dung. Those who can afford it cook and heat with charcoal or coal. Burning these solid fuels on open fires or simple stoves fills the room with smoke and toxic chemicals. These traditional energy sources expose those in the household \u2013 often women and children \u2013 to pollution levels that are ",
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"text": " higher than in even the most polluted cities in the world.",
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"text": "Indoor air pollution: what\u2019s the problem?",
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"text": "The lack of modern energy comes at a terrible cost to the health of billions of people.",
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"text": "Millions die from diseases that are caused by air pollution within the household. Chronic exposure to pollution in the household leads to pneumonia, COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), and lung cancer.",
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"text": " It is the leading risk factor of burns,",
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"text": " it increases the risk of cataracts,",
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"text": " and it impacts the health of babies before they are born and leads to a higher rate of stillbirths.",
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"text": "Global estimates of how many people die from indoor air pollution vary. We need more data on the levels of pollution that people are exposed to; and better research on how this exposure impacts people\u2019s health. The major studies ",
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"text": " however all agree that the death toll is extremely high. The IHME estimates that 2.3 million people die from indoor air pollution every year. The WHO estimates the death toll to be substantially higher: 3.8 million annual deaths.",
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"text": "To put this in perspective, the annual death count from HIV/AIDS is about 1 million and homicides sum up to about 400,000 globally.",
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"text": "The impacts of indoor air pollution are not limited to the household. As the air escapes the home, indoor pollution is also one of the most important sources of ",
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"text": " air pollution, which kills millions more every year. We discuss this in ",
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"text": "History: Our ancestors have been suffering from indoor air pollution since prehistoric times",
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"text": "Humanity suffered and died from indoor air pollution for thousands of years. As the name \u2018traditional\u2019 fuels implies, these were the sources that our ancestors in premodern days relied on.",
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"text": "The use of fire by humans goes back one and a half million years.",
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"text": " It kept our ancestors warm and protected; it allowed them to hunt and cook. But it also always had the negative side-effect of polluting the air that they breathed. The impact of manmade air pollution is documented in the remains of hunter-gatherers that lived in caves (close to modern-day Tel Aviv) about 400,000 years ago.",
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"text": " The archeological research suggests that it came from the smoke of indoor fires used to roast meat. High levels of air pollution have also been documented in the preserved lung tissue of Egyptian mummies.",
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"text": "Accounts of air pollution \u2013 indoors and outdoors \u2013 are common in the ancient world. The residents of ancient Rome referred to the periods in which their city was cloaked in thick smoke as ",
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"text": " (\u201cheavy heaven\u201d). After leaving Rome the philosopher and statesman Seneca wrote in a letter in the year 61:",
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"text": "\u201cI expect you\u2019re keen to hear what effect it had on my health, this decision of mine to leave?",
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"text": "Well, no sooner had I left behind the oppressive atmosphere of the city and that reek of smoking cookers which pour out, along with a cloud of ashes, all the poisonous fumes they\u2019ve accumulated in their interiors whenever they\u2019re started up, than I noticed the change in my condition at once.",
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"text": "You can imagine how much stronger I felt after reaching my vineyards! I fairly waded into my food \u2013 talk about animals just turned out on to spring grass! So by now I am quite my old self again.",
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"text": "That feeling of listlessness, being bodily ill at ease and mentally inefficient, didn\u2019t last. I\u2019m beginning to get down to some whole-hearted work.\u201d",
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"text": "The premodern energy systems that bothered Seneca are a thing of the past for those who live in rich countries today.",
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"text": "But as the \u2018energy ladder\u2019 suggests, billions in low- and middle-income countries still do not have access to clean fuels. The two charts here show this.",
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"text": "I\u2019m showing two charts here so we can compare what these two different measures of energy poverty tell us about the world. If you compare the data country-by-country you find that the share that has access to electricity is generally much higher than the share that has access to clean cooking fuels. We can use electricity for cooking, so why would having access to electricity not automatically mean that people have access to clean cooking technology?",
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"text": "It tells us that the cutoff for what it means to have \u2018access to electricity\u2019 is very low in these international statistics.",
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"text": " Having access to electricity means that a household can use it for basic purposes \u2013 such as some light at night or for charging a mobile phone \u2013 but might not be able to afford electricity for energy intensive purposes, such as cooking. A family that is able to charge their mobile phones often still relies on cheaper fuels, especially wood, for cooking.",
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"text": "The same was true in today\u2019s richest countries in the past. In pre-war London, 65% of households had access to electricity, but only 11% used it for cooking; the majority still relied on wood and coal.",
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"text": "Globally 40% do not have access to clean fuels for cooking. Four out of ten people \u2013 that\u2019s ",
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"text": " of all wood extracted from forests is used to produce energy, mostly for cooking and heating.",
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"text": " On the African continent the reliance on wood as fuel is the single most important driver of forest degradation.",
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"text": " In addition to the destruction of the natural environment, the reliance on fuelwood also contributes between 2 and 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions.",
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"text": "The fact that poor people have to rely on wood as a source of energy is one of the key reasons that deforestation is so rapid in poor countries \u2013 and why, on the other hand, forests in richer countries tend to ",
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"text": " \u2013\u00a0is not only key to improving the health of billions of people in the world, but also to protecting the environment around us.",
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"text": "How can the world make progress against energy poverty and indoor air pollution?",
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"text": "Indoor air pollution is a global problem that is very much solvable. The benefits are especially large for women, who not only suffer the largest health consequences but are also mostly responsible for collecting and carrying the wood and biomass to their homes.",
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"text": "The world is solving this problem. We see this in the chart. Strong economic growth made people around the world richer, and the death rate from indoor air pollution declined.",
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"text": "Globally the death toll from indoor air pollution has declined by 40% since 1990.",
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"text": "Yet it\u2019s still a massive problem. The map next to it makes this clear. In many countries this very solvable problem is still responsible for over 5% of all deaths.",
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"text": "This is one of the many reasons why growth and electrification are so important for people\u2019s wellbeing and health.",
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"text": " expects that by 2030 there will still be 2.4 billion people without access to clean cooking facilities.",
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"text": "Yes, even at lower incomes it is possible to move away from the most polluting fuel sources.",
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"text": " China has focused on replacing the coal cookstoves that many relied on until recently and has achieved ",
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"text": " in household air pollution. India ",
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"text": "achieved progress",
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"text": "For many who live in places where modern fuels are not yet available, so-called \u2018improved cook stoves\u2019 can be an interim step towards clean cooking. Good stoves burn the fuel more efficiently and are therefore both more environmentally friendly and keep the air in the household cleaner.",
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"text": " team decided to offset our carbon emissions by subsidizing these cooking stoves. We cause greenhouse gas emissions from travel and to power the servers that keep the website running. A key argument for our decision to offset our emissions in this way was that these stoves have additional benefits beyond the emissions reduction. They reduce deforestation and biodiversity losses, provide economic benefits to the households, and reduce indoor air pollution.",
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"text": "Energy poverty is still the reality for around 3 billion people in the world today. What\u2019s different from the past is that it\u2019s now a solvable problem. What was unavoidable for the ancient Romans or the hunter-gatherers is entirely avoidable today. The millions that die today do not have to, if we find ways to end energy poverty and provide clean modern energy to everyone.",
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"text": ", increased production of clean energy, and electrification. Access to energy and clean cooking technologies would mean large benefits for environmental protection, gender equality, and for health.",
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"text": "There are many reasons for that, a large one is that cooking is very energy-intensive and that poor households do have access to sufficient electrical energy to rely on it for such energy-intensive uses. There can also be other practical considerations, for example that a modern stove cannot accommodate a pot that is large enough to cook for the whole family. Or that people prefer the taste of food cooked on a wood or a charcoal stove.",
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"text": "The results of the Global Burden of Disease study by the IHME can be found in their scientific publications (usually published in The Lancet) and the specific results on the impact of air pollution can also be found in the annual report \u2018State of Global Air\u2019. This report is published jointly by the IHME and the Health Effects Institute.Health Effects Institute (2020) \u2013 ",
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"text": "It would be possible to add specific technologies (rather than just fuels) to the Energy Ladder, in such an extended version one might consider to include improved biomass cookstoves (ICS) and solar cookers.",
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"text": "An improved biomass cookstove (ICS) describes a stove with higher efficiency or lower emissions than a traditional stove. The WHO however cautions:\u00a0 \u201cMost ICS models do not meet WHO Guidelines, but offer some benefits and can be used as transitional solutions.Further innovation, research and investment may indeed produce affordable and widely available biomass stoves that meet the WHO Guidelines levels.\u201d Further below in this text I discuss some of the benefits of high-quality ICS.Solar cookers are not as widely adopted as the fuels considered here and are not included in the Energy Ladder published by the WHO.",
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"text": " see Pope DP, Mishra V, Thompson L, Siddiqui AR, Rehfuess EA, Weber Met al. (2010) \u2013 Risk of low birth weight and stillbirth associated with indoor air pollution from solid fuel use in developing countries. Epidemiol Rev 32:70-8120378629.",
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"text": "For an overview see Gowlett, J. a. J. (2016) \u2013 The discovery of fire by humans: A long and convoluted process. ",
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"text": "Junfeng (Jim) Zhang, Kirk R Smith (2003) \u2013 Indoor air pollution: a global health concern, British Medical Bulletin, Volume 68, Issue 1, December 2003, Pages 209\u2013225, ",
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"text": "\u201cBurning solid fuels produces extremely high levels of indoor air pollution: typical 24-hour levels of PM10 in biomass-using homes in Africa, Asia or Latin America range from 300 to 3000 micrograms per cubic metre (\u00b5g/m3). Peaks during cooking may be as high as 10 000 \u00b5g/m3. By comparison, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has set the standard for annual mean PM10 levels in outdoor air at 50 \u00b5g/m3; the annual mean PM10 limit agreed by the European Union is 40 \u00b5g/m3.\u201d \u2013\u2013 ",
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"text": "For a comparison of indoor air pollution levels from different energy sources see Shupler, M., Hystad, P., Birch, A., Miller-Lionberg, D., Jeronimo, M., Arku, R. E., Chu, Y. L., Mushtaha, M., Heenan, L., Rangarajan, S., Seron, P., Lanas, F., Cazor, F., Lopez-Jaramillo, P., Camacho, P. A., Perez, M., Yeates, K., West, N., Ncube, T., \u2026 Brauer, M. (2020) \u2013 Household and personal air pollution exposure measurements from 120 communities in eight countries: Results from the PURE-AIR study. In ",
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"text": " and IEA (2020) \u2013",
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1 | 2023-10-10 09:39:37 | 2021-07-05 09:00:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LsJVGCYYa9wzSuKjvt74D21XlRQjS6capExO8Z8FLXjJfr7-Gc12k77En4fMp4EsdRdhApWyxrZthSB1A | The lack of access to modern energy sources subjects people to a life of poverty. No electricity means no refrigeration of food, no washing machine, and no light at night. If you don’t have artificial light, your day is over at sunset. This is why the students in this photo are out on the street: they had to find a spot under a streetlight to do their homework. It’s a photo that shows both the determination of those who were born into poverty, but also the steep odds that they have to work against. Energy poverty is so common that you can see it from space. In Sub-Saharan Africa [43% of the population](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-the-population-with-access-to-electricity) do not have access to electricity. The poorest regions in the world are dark at night, as the satellite image shows. **The Earth at night – NASA**1 <Image filename="earth-night.png"/> **Students doing their homework under a streetlight in Conakry, Guinea.**2 <Image filename="homework-streetlight.png"/> But to understand one of the world’s biggest problems that comes with energy poverty we need to zoom in to what’s happening within family households around the world. More specifically, we need to take a look in the world’s kitchens. In high-income countries, people use electricity or gas to cook a meal. But 40% of the world do not have access to these clean, modern energy sources for cooking. What do they rely on instead? The visualization below is the World Health Organization's answer.3 The so-called ‘Energy Ladder’ shows the dominant sources of household energy at different levels of income. From very low incomes on the left to high incomes on the right. The poorest households burn wood and other biomass, like crop waste and dried dung. Those who can afford it cook and heat with charcoal or coal. Burning these solid fuels on open fires or simple stoves fills the room with smoke and toxic chemicals. These traditional energy sources expose those in the household – often women and children – to pollution levels that are _… | Energy poverty and indoor air pollution: a problem as old as humanity that we can end within our lifetime | |
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1 | 2024-06-12 14:54:27 | 2023-04-05 14:55:40 | 1970-01-01 00:00:00 | unlisted | ALBJ4LspmnX_gL0D9vo41Y3_jRYNHmPTM2pGHckLuYVWvuOp_j1oiX2zJ3GjzUDmkixjwL3QEETpqjmxEkBxqA | Ozone Layer | ||
| 1vb0BMBIbn8XvTgQcsiVEkGU8O61hMzbafLfQH8D1G-c | sanitation | article | {
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"text": ". In the chart, we see that it ranks as significant risk factor for death globally.",
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1 | 2023-09-29 08:17:03 | 2019-09-25 16:00:31 | 2024-01-17 13:18:49 | unlisted | ALBJ4LvHK02ew01HevXvcJaCVMjnu_3uh2VxkopDCfybJEV9aOq8AfF4X8okkQ3FBhUvhzlkY703bDCOT4N7dQ | [
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Having access to and being able to use safe sanitation facilities is one of our most basic human needs. Nevertheless, due to a range of barriers, such as lack of availability, affordability, or cultural norms, around 40% of the world’s population [do not use safe sanitation facilities](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-using-safely-managed-sanitation?tab=chart&time=earliest..latest&country=~OWID_WRL). This is a major health risk. Unsafe sanitation is responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths each year. In this article, we give an overview of global and national data on the usage of sanitation facilities and its impact on health outcomes. ## Unsafe sanitation is a leading risk factor for death ### Unsafe sanitation is responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths each year Unsafe sanitation is one of the world's largest health and environmental problems – particularly for the [poorest in the world](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/improved-sanitation-facilities-vs-gdp-per-capita). These estimates of the annual number of deaths attributed to a wide range of risk factors are shown here. Unsafe sanitation is a leading risk factor for infectious diseases, including cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and [polio](https://ourworldindata.org/polio).1 It also exacerbates malnutrition and, in particular, [childhood stunting](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/prevalence-of-stunting-vs-improved-sanitation-facilities). In the chart, we see that it ranks as significant risk factor for death globally. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-of-deaths-by-risk-factor"/> ## The global distribution of deaths from sanitation ### In low-income countries, poor sanitation accounts for a larger share of deaths In the map we see the share of annual deaths attributed to unsafe sanitation across the world. The share of deaths attributed to unsafe sanitation is higher in Sub-Saharan Africa and in some areas south and southeastern Asia. When we compare the share of deaths attribute… | Sanitation |
| 1vPEzmVwsDbJnv0Rn7HK6wKFCUXX9_h6IEgSO4-gBUbM | every-day-of-infancy-is-safer-than-in-the-past | data-insight | {
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1 | 2024-07-10 09:23:34 | 2024-07-31 05:00:00 | 2024-07-29 09:35:43 | unlisted | ALBJ4LuH61MB6S_8F70qKQMoSoR-sPq2fLnLtj-c-756T-sQhkh6PuVzRdUZg5V8J4yYoiWca9NSi19NjCo6kw | <Image filename="infant-mortality-over-time-1.png"/> This chart shows death rates across the first year of a baby’s life and how they have been reduced over time. The data spans 1921 to 2021 and comes from the Office for National Statistics in England & Wales. On the left-hand side of the chart, you can see that death rates are much higher on the first day of life. They then drop sharply over the following days and continue declining gradually over the rest of the year. But you can also see that over decades, the entire curve has shifted downwards. This means that every day of infancy is safer than in the past. [Read more about the decline in child mortality](https://ourworldindata.org/child-mortality-in-the-past) → | Every day of infancy is safer than in the past | |
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"value": "<table class=\"html-table\"><tr><td>Varieties of Democracy</td><td><ul><li>Narrow and broader: electoral, liberal, participatory, deliberative, or egalitarian democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regimes of the World</td><td><ul><li>Narrow: electoral or liberal democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Lexical Index</td><td><ul><li>Narrow: electoral (or liberal) democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Boix-Miller-Rosato</td><td><ul><li>Narrow: electoral democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Polity</td><td><ul><li>\tNarrow: electoral and liberal democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Freedom House</td><td><ul><li>Narrow: electoral or liberal democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Bertelsmann Transformation Index</td><td><ul><li>Broad: electoral, liberal, participatory, deliberative, and effective democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Economist Intelligence Unit</td><td><ul><li>Broad: electoral, liberal, participatory, deliberative, and effective democracy</li></ul></td></tr></table>",
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"text": "We see that the approaches share a basic principle of democracy: a democracy is an electoral political system in which citizens get to participate in free and fair elections. The approaches also mostly agree that democracies are liberal political systems, in which citizens have additional civil rights and are protected from the state by constraining it.",
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"text": "Some approaches stop there, and stick to these narrower conceptions of democracy. Others characterize democracy in broader terms, and also see it as a participatory and deliberative (citizens engage in elections, civil society, and public discourse) as well as an effective (governments can act on citizens\u2019 behalf) political system.",
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"text": "Varieties of Democracy \u2014 true to its name \u2014 offers both narrow and broader characterizations, by separately adding liberal, participatory, deliberative, as well as egalitarian (economic and social resources are equally distributed) political institutions to electoral democracy.",
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"text": "How is democracy scored?",
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"text": " democracy.",
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"value": "<table class=\"html-table\"><tr><td>Varieties of Democracy</td><td><ul><li>On a spectrum: 0 to 1, highly undemocratic to highly democratic</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regimes of the World</td><td><ul><li>As a classification: closed autocracy < electoral autocracy < electoral democracy < liberal democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Lexical Index</td><td><ul><li>As a classification: non-electoral autocracy < one-party autocracy < multi-party autocracy without elected executive < multi-party autocracy < exclusive democracy < male democracy < electoral democracy < polyarchy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Boix-Miller-Rosato</td><td><ul><li>As a classification: non-democracy < democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Polity</td><td><ul><li>On a spectrum: -10 to 10, hereditary monarchy to consolidated democracy</li><li>classification: autocracy < anocracy < democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Freedom House</td><td><ul><li>As a classification; classification 1: not free < partly free < free</li><li>classification 2: non-democracy < electoral democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Bertelsmann Transformation Index</td><td><ul><li>On a spectrum: 1 to 10, highly undemocratic to highly democratic</li><li>classification: hard-line autocracy < moderate autocracy < very defective democracy < defective democracy < consolidating democracy</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Economist Intelligence Unit</td><td><ul><li>On a spectrum: 0 to 10, highly undemocratic to 10 highly democratic</li><li>classification: authoritarian regime < hybrid regime < flawed democracy < full democracy</li></ul></td></tr></table>",
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"text": "V-Dem treats democracy as a ",
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"text": "Other approaches instead treat democracy as a binary, and ",
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"text": ", using a spectrum of countries being more or less democratic, and setting thresholds above which a country is considered a democracy overall.",
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"text": "Approaches that classify countries into democracies and non-democracies further differ in whether all countries that are not democracies are considered autocracies or authoritarian regimes, or whether there are some countries that do not clearly belong in either group.",
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"text": "And while Freedom in the World identifies which countries are electoral democracies in recent years, its main classification distinguishes between free, partly-free, and not-free countries (which many treat as a proxy for liberal democracy).",
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"text": "Beyond these broad similarities in how the approaches characterize and score democracy, their exact definitions differ in smaller ways, too. If you are interested in the details, you can take a closer look at the specific defining characteristics at the end of this article.",
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"text": "What differences are captured?",
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"text": "How the approaches score democracy affects what differences in democracy they can capture.",
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"value": "<table class=\"html-table\"><tr><td>Varieties of Democracy</td><td><ul><li>\tBig to very small differences</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regimes of the World</td><td><ul><li>Big differences, with clear meaning</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Lexical Index</td><td><ul><li>Big to medium differences, with very clear meaning</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Boix-Miller-Rosato</td><td><ul><li>Big differences, with clear meaning</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Polity</td><td><ul><li>Big to medium differences</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Freedom House</td><td><ul><li>Big differences</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Bertelsmann Transformation Index</td><td><ul><li>Big to small differences</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Economist Intelligence Unit</td><td><ul><li>Big to small differences</li></ul></td></tr></table>",
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"text": "Classifications tend to be coarser, and therefore cover big to medium differences in democracy: they reduce the complexity of political systems a lot and distinguish between broad types, such as the democracies of Chile and Norway on the one hand, and the non-democracies of North Korea and Saudi Arabia, on the other.",
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"text": "The fine-grained spectrums of other approaches meanwhile reduce political systems\u2019 complexity a bit less, and capture both big and small differences in democracy, such as the difference in democratic quality between the democracies Chile and Norway, and the difference between autocracies North Korea and Saudi Arabia. Spectrums can also better capture small changes within political systems over time, towards or away from democracy.",
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"text": "While some approaches use their classifications exclusively to reduce the complexity of their spectrums, others also use theirs to clearly define what features characterize each category.",
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"text": "What years and countries are covered?",
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"text": "The approaches also differ in what years and countries they cover.",
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"value": "<table class=\"html-table\"><tr><td>Varieties of Democracy</td><td><ul><li>Years since 1789</li><li>202 countries, also non-independent</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regimes of the World</td><td><ul><li>Years since 1789</li><li>202 countries, also non-independent</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Lexical Index</td><td><ul><li>Years since 1789</li><li>242 countries, also non-independent and microstates</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Boix-Miller-Rosato</td><td><ul><li>Years since 1800</li><li>218 countries, also microstates</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Polity</td><td><ul><li>Years 1800 \u2014 2018</li><li>192 countries</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Freedom House</td><td><ul><li>Years since 1972</li><li>229 countries and territories, also microentities</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Bertelsmann Transformation Index</td><td><ul><li>Years since 2005</li><li>138 countries and territories, no consolidated democracies</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Economist Intelligence Unit</td><td><ul><li>Years since 2006</li><li>167 countries</li></ul></td></tr></table>",
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"text": "All approaches cover the recent past, but differ in how far they go back in time. BTI and EIU begin in the mid-2000s. Freedom in the World starts in the early 1970s. The other approaches go back to the beginning of the 19th century or even the late 18th century. The Regimes of the World data we ourselves extended ",
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"text": "back from 1900",
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"text": "All approaches cover most countries in the world. They differ in how comprehensive their coverage is: BTI excludes long-term members of the OECD (which it considers consolidated democracies), while all other approaches assess them. Some approaches also include very small states and territories, and some also assess many non-independent countries, usually colonies.",
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"url": "#note-10",
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"text": "How are democracy\u2019s characteristics assessed?",
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"text": "The approaches also differ in how they go about assessing the characteristics of democracy.",
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"value": "<table class=\"html-table\"><tr><td>Varieties of Democracy</td><td><ul><li>Mostly through evaluations by experts; some easy-to-observe characteristics assessed by own researchers</li><li>Then weighting, adding, and multiplying scores for (sub)characteristics</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regimes of the World</td><td><ul><li>Mostly through evaluations by experts; some easy-to-observe characteristics assessed by own researchers</li><li>Then evaluating whether necessary characteristics are (not) present</li><li>Then weighting, adding, and multiplying scores for a few characteristics</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Lexical Index</td><td><ul><li>Mostly with easy-to-observe characteristics, few evaluations by own researchers based on academic research</li><li>Then evaluating whether necessary characteristics are present or not</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Boix-Miller-Rosato</td><td><ul><li>Mostly with easy-to-observe characteristics, few evaluations by own researchers based on academic literature</li><li>Then evaluating whether necessary characteristics are present or not</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Polity</td><td><ul><li>Mostly through evaluations by own researchers based on academic literature and news reports</li><li>Then weighting and adding scores for characteristics</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Freedom House</td><td><ul><li>Mostly through evaluations by country and regional experts and own researchers based on different types of sources</li><li>Free countries: then adding scores for (sub)characteristics</li><li>Electoral democracies: then adding scores and evaluating whether necessary characteristics are present or not</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Bertelsmann Transformation Index</td><td><ul><li>Mostly through evaluations by country, regional, and general experts, some evaluations by representative surveys of regular citizens</li><li>Spectrum: then averaging of scores for (sub)characteristics</li><li>Classification: then averaging and evaluating whether necessary characteristics are present or not</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Economist Intelligence Unit</td><td><ul><li>Mostly through evaluations by own country experts, some evaluations by representative surveys of regular citizens</li><li>Then averaging and minor weighting of scores for (sub)characteristics</li></ul></td></tr></table>",
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"text": "Many rely on evaluations to assess democratic characteristics that are difficult to observe, such as whether elections were competitive and people were free to express their views.",
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"text": "Some rely on evaluations by country experts to assess whether, or to which extent, democracy\u2019s characteristics are present (or not) in any given country and year. Others depend on evaluations by their own researchers reviewing the academic literature and news reports. And many use both country experts and their own teams.",
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"text": "The Lexical Index and the Boix-Miller-Rosato data meanwhile work to avoid difficult evaluations by either experts or researchers, and mostly have their own teams assess easy-to-observe characteristics \u2014 such as whether regular elections are held and several parties compete in them \u2014 to identify (non-)democracies.",
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"text": "Depending on whether they score democracy as a spectrum or classification, the approaches then aggregate the scores for specific characteristics: some average, add, and/or weigh the scores, others assess whether necessary characteristics are present, and a few do both.",
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"text": "The next tables summarize how the approaches address the challenges that come with measuring democracy. The first challenge is to make their assessments valid \u2014 to actually measure what they want to capture.",
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"value": "<table class=\"html-table\"><tr><td>Varieties of Democracy</td><td><ul><li>Experts (often nationals or residents) know country and characteristics well, own researchers know measurement procedures well</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regimes of the World</td><td><ul><li>Experts (often nationals or residents) know country and characteristics well, own researchers know measurement procedures well</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Lexical Index</td><td><ul><li>Own researchers know measurement procedures well</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Boix-Miller-Rosato</td><td><ul><li>Own researchers know measurement procedures well</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Polity</td><td><ul><li>Own researchers know measurement well</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Freedom House</td><td><ul><li>Experts know country or region well, own researchers know measurement well</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Bertelsmann Transformation Index</td><td><ul><li>Experts (about half of them local) know country well, regular citizens know their own experiences well</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Economist Intelligence Unit</td><td><ul><li>Experts know country or region well, regular citizens know their own experiences well</li></ul></td></tr></table>",
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"text": "The approaches go about measuring democracy differently because they weigh the challenges of measurement differently.",
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"text": "For those mostly relying on experts, the priority is that democracy\u2019s characteristics are evaluated by people that know the country well. For those relying on their own researchers, the priority is that the coders know the approach\u2019s characterization of democracy and the measurement procedures well. And for those relying on representative surveys, capturing the difficult-to-observe lived realities of regular citizens is especially important.",
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"text": "The approaches are also concerned with making their assessments in a precise and reliable manner.",
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"value": "<table class=\"html-table\"><tr><td>Varieties of Democracy</td><td><ul><li>Several experts per country, year, and characteristic used (usually 5 or more since 1900, often 25 per country)</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regimes of the World</td><td><ul><li>Several experts per country, year, and characteristic used (usually 5 or more since 1900, often 25 per country)</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Lexical Index</td><td><ul><li>Characteristics easy to understand and observe; subjective evaluation therefore mostly unnecessary</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Boix-Miller-Rosato</td><td><ul><li>\tCharacteristics easy to understand and observe; subjective evaluation therefore mostly unnecessary</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Polity</td><td><ul><li>Several researchers used</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Freedom House</td><td><ul><li>More than 100 experts and researchers used in total; Experts and researchers rely on academic research, news and NGO reports, personal conversations, and on-the-ground research</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Bertelsmann Transformation Index</td><td><ul><li>Two experts per country and year used</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Economist Intelligence Unit</td><td><ul><li>One or two experts per country and year used</li></ul></td></tr></table>",
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"text": "Expert-based approaches therefore often recruit many experts in total, several experts per country, or even several to many experts per country, year and characteristic.",
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"text": "Own-researcher-based approaches instead either focus more on making difficult subjective evaluation mostly unnecessary, or encourage their teams to rely on many different secondary sources, such as country-specific academic research, news reports, and personal conversations.",
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"text": "The approaches also face the challenge of how to make the coders\u2019 respective assessments comparable across countries and time.",
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"value": "<table class=\"html-table\"><tr><td>Varieties of Democracy</td><td><ul><li>Experts answer very specific questions about sub-characteristics on completely explained scale</li><li>Experts also code hypothetical countries and many code several countries, denote own uncertainty and personal demographic information</li><li>Project investigated expert biases and found them to be limited</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regimes of the World</td><td><ul><li>Experts answer very specific questions about sub-characteristics on completely explained scale</li><li>Experts also code hypothetical examples and many code several countries, denote own uncertainty and personal attributes</li><li>Project investigated expert biases and found them to be limited</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Lexical Index</td><td><ul><li>Researchers answer specific questions about characteristics on explained scale</li><li>Same researcher assesses all countries and years</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Boix-Miller-Rosato</td><td><ul><li>Same researcher assesses all countries and years</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Polity</td><td><ul><li>Experts answer specific questions about characteristics on completely explained scale</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Freedom House</td><td><ul><li>Experts answer questions about characteristics separately</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Bertelsmann Transformation Index</td><td><ul><li>Experts answer specific questions about sub-characteristics on explained scale</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Economist Intelligence Unit</td><td><ul><li>Experts answer specific questions about sub-characteristics on completely explained scale</li></ul></td></tr></table>",
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"text": "The surveys therefore ask the experts questions about specific characteristics of democracy, such as the presence or absence of election fraud, instead of making them rely on their broad impressions. They also explain the scales on which the characteristics are scored, and often all of the scales\u2019 values.",
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"text": "Measuring many specific low-level characteristics also helps users understand why a country received a specific score, and it allows them to create new measures tailored to their own interests.",
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"text": "How are remaining differences dealt with?",
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"text": "The approaches then all work to address any remaining differences between coders, even if they do so differently.",
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"value": "<table class=\"html-table\"><tr><td>Varieties of Democracy</td><td><ul><li>Measurement model uses main and additional information and provides estimates of remaining measurement uncertainty</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regimes of the World</td><td><ul><li>Measurement model uses main and additional information and provides estimates of remaining measurement uncertainty</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Lexical Index</td><td><ul><li>One primary coder, so no differences between coders to be reconciled</li><li>Second researcher for some countries reproduced most assessments</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Boix-Miller-Rosato</td><td><ul><li>One primary coder, so no differences between coders to be reconciled</li><li>For recent years discussions among researchers reconcile different standards across coders, countries, and years</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Polity</td><td><ul><li>Discussions among researchers reconcile different standards across coders, countries, and years</li><li>Separate researcher teams for some countries and years reproduced most assessments</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Freedom House</td><td><ul><li>Discussions among experts and researchers reconcile different standards across coders, countries, and years</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Bertelsmann Transformation Index</td><td><ul><li>Discussions among regional and general experts and own researchers reconcile different standards across coders, countries, and years</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Economist Intelligence Unit</td><td><ul><li>Discussions among experts and researchers reconcile different standards across coders, countries, and years</li></ul></td></tr></table>",
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"text": "V-Dem and RoW work with a statistical model which uses the experts\u2019 ratings of actual countries and hypothetical country examples, as well as the experts\u2019 stated uncertainties and personal demographics to produce both best and upper- and lower-bound estimates of many characteristics.",
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"text": "All approaches publicly release their data and almost all make the data straightforward to download and use. Most approaches release not only the overall classification and scores, but also the underlying (sub)characteristics. V-Dem even releases the data coded by each (anonymous) expert.",
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"text": "If you want to explore the data that each of these datasets produce, you can do so in our ",
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"text": "How (not) to measure democracy",
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"text": ". Center for Systemic Peace.",
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1 | 2023-07-21 16:10:29 | 2022-06-17 07:24:25 | 2024-02-27 15:15:07 | unlisted | ALBJ4LtV3LLmyT-uK-nRvj8NHdMzsCJGoFRsxj3DYNYtDTuqjNYn-UFIjQKlVhXVIrITGWpnE9yno6GCySTMGA | Measuring the state of democracy across the world helps us understand the extent to which people have political rights and freedoms. But measuring how democratic a country is, comes with many challenges. People do not always agree on what characteristics define a democracy. These characteristics — such as whether an election was free and fair — even once defined, are difficult to assess. The judgement of experts is to some degree subjective and they may disagree; either about a specific characteristic, or how several characteristics can be reduced into a single measure of democracy. So how do researchers address these challenges and identify which countries are democratic and undemocratic? In our work on [Democracy](https://ourworldindata.org/democracy), we provide data from eight leading approaches of measuring democracy: * [Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem)](https://www.v-dem.net/vdemds.html) by the V-Dem project1 * [Regimes of the World (RoW)](https://www.v-dem.net/vdemds.html) by Lührmann et al. (2018)2, which use V-Dem data * [Lexical Index of Electoral Democracy (LIED)](https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/WPKNIT) by Skaaning et al. (2015)3 * [Boix-Miller-Rosato](https://sites.google.com/site/mkmtwo/data?authuser=0) by Boix et al. (2013, BMR)4 * [Polity](https://www.systemicpeace.org/inscrdata.html) by the Center for Systemic Peace5 * Freedom House’s (FH) [Freedom in the World](https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world)6 * [Bertelsmann Transformation Index (BTI)](https://bti-project.org/en/downloads) by the Bertelsmann Foundation7 * Economist Intelligence Unit’s (EIU) [Democracy Index](https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2021/?utm_source=eiu-website&utm_medium=blog&utm_campaign=democracy-index-2021)8 These approaches all measure democracy (or a closely related aspect), they cover many countries and years, and are commonly used by researchers and policymakers. You can delve into their data — the main democracy measures, indicators of specific characteris… | Democracy data: how sources differ and when to use which one | |
| 1v-HjyDcR2jBAekDJrYpzVtlvv1D24lA5Y2vddu26150 | extreme-poverty-in-china-has-been-almost-eliminated-first-in-urban-then-in-rural-regions | data-insight | {
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1 | 2023-12-28 17:51:29 | 2024-03-06 08:01:23 | 2024-03-15 10:23:38 | unlisted | ALBJ4LtFNbnts_Svd_OTw0qs8g1XkTzUwl_q4imyBb02EXiZ-5vKz0ulyQhq7dSbE02Z5XvEsno6Jb_pBX3mtA | <Image filename="china-share-of-population-in-extreme-poverty-desktop.png"/> In 1981, 97% of people in the Chinese countryside lived in extreme poverty. Even in cities, it was more than 70%. Since then, large economic growth has made it possible for hundreds of millions of people in China to leave extreme poverty behind, first in cities and then in the countryside. By 2020, the share of people living in extreme poverty in both urban and rural areas was below 1%. [Explore this data](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-in-extreme-poverty?tab=chart&country=China+%28rural%29~China+%28urban%29) → | Extreme poverty in China has been almost eliminated — first in urban, then in rural regions | |
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"text": "6% of land use change results from conversion from food for human consumption, and 12% for the production of animal feed. Savannah burning (2% of food emissions) is largely burning of bush land in Africa to allow animal grazing. Emissions from cultivated organic soils (4%) are split between human food and animal feed. This is where very high carbon soils are used for cropland, and this releases carbon. It\u2019s a major issue in palm plantations and also in some Northern Hemisphere countries.",
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"excerpt": "One-quarter of the world's greenhouse gas emissions result from food and agriculture. What are the main contributors to food's emissions?",
"dateline": "November 6, 2019",
"subtitle": "One-quarter of the world's greenhouse gas emissions result from food and agriculture. What are the main contributors to food's emissions?",
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1 | 2023-09-01 15:56:17 | 2019-11-06 17:00:25 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LsMTPMhBwUp6uJXtQ6FIypJbEI8A3eBxy4Ey1TvC115tO-SE6FLo1xj1OQPKSC22PPPXeDO4BUTLZG8EA | When it comes to tackling climate change, the focus tends to be on ‘clean energy’ solutions – the deployment of [renewable](https://ourworldindata.org/renewable-energy) or nuclear energy; improvements in [energy efficiency](https://ourworldindata.org/energy-production-and-changing-energy-sources#energy-intensity-of-economies); or transition to low-carbon transport. Indeed, energy, whether in the form of electricity, heat, transport or industrial processes, account for the majority – 76% – of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.1 But the global food system, which encompasses production, and post-farm process such as processing, and distribution is also a key contributor to emissions. And it’s a problem for which we don’t yet have viable technological solutions. The visualization shown here – based on data from the meta-analysis by Joseph Poore and Thomas Nemecek (2018), published in _Science_ – summarizes food’s share of total emissions and breaks it down by source.2 Food is responsible for approximately 26% of global GHG emissions. There are four key elements to consider when trying to quantify food GHG emissions. These are shown by category in the visualization: <Image filename="How-much-of-GHGs-come-from-food.png"/> ### **Livestock & fisheries account for 31% of food emissions**. Livestock – animals raised for meat, dairy, eggs and seafood production – contribute to emissions in several ways. Ruminant livestock – mainly cattle – for example, produce methane through their digestive processes (in a process known as ‘enteric fermentation’). Manure management, pasture management, and fuel consumption from fishing vessels also fall into this category. This 31% of emissions relates to on-farm ‘production’ emissions only: it does not include land use change or supply chain emissions from the production of crops for animal feed: these figures are included separately in the other categories. ### Crop production accounts for 27% of food emissions. 21% of food’s emissions comes from crop production for direct human co… | Food production is responsible for one-quarter of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions | |
| 1udPwyCST-n8kvDW-bSaqruKowHnx1nUjKvlj5_526dw | childhood-vaccination-policies | article | {
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"text": " globally, some countries have started to consider mandatory vaccination, although no country has yet to make vaccines mandatory for its population.",
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"text": " While COVID-19 has resurfaced the debate on vaccination policies, it has been an important topic for many other diseases. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that vaccines save two to three million lives each year (excluding COVID). The development of vaccines against vaccine-preventable childhood diseases has been a key driver in the decline of ",
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"text": "Despite it being such an important topic, it is surprising that information about which countries have mandatory vaccine policy is lacking, and it is childhood vaccines under a country\u2019s national immunization schedules that are most commonly made mandatory.",
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"text": "We recently charted mandatory childhood vaccine policies worldwide as they are becoming an increasingly important policy intervention for governments trying to address low vaccination rates.",
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"text": " Mandates require vaccination for a certain purpose, most commonly related to school entry for children. While definitional disagreements still persist, it remains important to better understand what policies are in place across countries and the reasons driving changes in policy over time.",
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"text": "Our list indicates whether a country has a mandatory vaccination policy for one or more vaccine and the strictness of the mandate on a scale ranging across three levels: mandatory, mandatory for school entry, or recommended. The childhood vaccines include the vaccines that protect from ",
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"text": " \u2013 some of which are administered as combined vaccines. We have classified a country as having a mandatory policy if they mandate for at least one vaccine.",
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"text": "The differences in vaccination policy across the world are shown in the map. By covering 149 countries we could identify some trends around where and why vaccines are mandatory today.",
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"text": "This is a live dataset that relies on crowdsourcing to note policy changes. If you are aware of any new policies or policy changes for any country please do get in touch at: [email protected].",
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"text": "In the chart you see a breakdown of the number of countries with a given policy mandate. You can view this by region by using the \"Change region\" toggle on the interactive chart.",
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"text": "Europe has a mixture of mandatory and recommended policies. But most European countries \u00ad\u2013 16 out of 28 \u2013 do not have mandatory vaccination. European countries were among the first to introduce mandatory vaccination for smallpox in the early 19",
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"text": " century, which also led to early push-back. The early introduction and early push-back, along with present-day approaches to foster mutual trust and responsibility between citizens and the health authorities, may be part of the reason why vaccination is often recommended rather than mandated in many European countries.",
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"text": " In Nigeria, vaccination is mandatory, and several states have enacted legislation criminalising vaccine refusal. Yet as Onyemelukwe (2016) argues, there are structural, logistical, political, systemic, religious and cultural obstacles to the effective distribution and uptake of vaccines, ranging from cold chain issues, to corruption and security issues.",
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1 | 2024-02-08 15:59:17 | 2021-06-11 10:00:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LtNL9kAj-2E6uyqL5vCD0cMsIllvvb76s2Mjluq1itCYUfnB3w5LI54xV7Wzh8HaFBOe4z25tXzpZfXvw | <Callout title=""/> With the widespread rollout of [COVID-19 vaccines](http://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations) globally, some countries have started to consider mandatory vaccination, although no country has yet to make vaccines mandatory for its population.1 While COVID-19 has resurfaced the debate on vaccination policies, it has been an important topic for many other diseases. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that vaccines save two to three million lives each year (excluding COVID). The development of vaccines against vaccine-preventable childhood diseases has been a key driver in the decline of [child mortality](http://ourworldindata.org/child-mortality). Despite it being such an important topic, it is surprising that information about which countries have mandatory vaccine policy is lacking, and it is childhood vaccines under a country’s national immunization schedules that are most commonly made mandatory. In this article we present a new global dataset which looks at childhood vaccination policies across the world. # How do childhood vaccination policies vary across the world? We recently charted mandatory childhood vaccine policies worldwide as they are becoming an increasingly important policy intervention for governments trying to address low vaccination rates.2 The term ‘mandatory’ and ‘mandates’ are taken to mean quite different things across countries. Whilst the term is commonly used it is poorly defined.3 Mandates require vaccination for a certain purpose, most commonly related to school entry for children. While definitional disagreements still persist, it remains important to better understand what policies are in place across countries and the reasons driving changes in policy over time. Our list indicates whether a country has a mandatory vaccination policy for one or more vaccine and the strictness of the mandate on a scale ranging across three levels: mandatory, mandatory for school entry, or recommended. The childhood vaccines include the vaccines that protect from [… | Which countries have mandatory childhood vaccination policies? | |
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1 | 2024-05-31 11:46:10 | 2024-07-09 05:00:00 | 2024-06-04 09:59:43 | unlisted | ALBJ4LuLy5tILL-v6sOgZawtMYzs80K2IGyFb8qKw_nh45Bqv76Zg1LVWY7s6LoWW1XrGtBN-8TQ0Ds5KhuuSA | <Image filename="how-important-leisure-is-to-people-in-life-desktop.png"/> Free time is important to most people around the world, according to data from the European Values Study and World Values Survey. The chart shows that in most countries, leisure is important to more than 80% of people. However, the percentage of people who find leisure very important in life varies more. In some countries, it is the majority, while in others, it is less than a third. Valuing leisure a lot doesn’t mean that people [value work](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/how-important-work-is-to-people-in-life) less or [work](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-working-hours-per-worker?time=latest&country=GBR~DEU~USA~NGA~MEX~IDN~JPN~RUS~BRA~CHN) fewer hours. [Work is important to most people](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/how-important-work-is-to-people-in-life) globally; but people also value enjoying free time, such as with their [family](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/how-important-family-is-to-people-in-life) and [friends](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/how-important-friends-are-to-people-in-life?country=GBR~JPN~USA~DEU~RUS~BRA~CHN~EGY~MEX~IDN~ETH~NGA). [Explore this data](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/how-important-leisure-is-to-people-in-life) → | How much do people value leisure? | |
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1 | 2024-06-04 07:46:59 | 2023-04-13 09:10:38 | 2024-06-04 09:00:18 | unlisted | ALBJ4LtkvQ-_bICIfTwhEYgis2nWJNM9DsMcU4UBJny86bHof85ymwmntoSFlltCFL92BAlG9ppwIH_7CBdRXw | Many of us cannot imagine our lives without the Internet — but the technology [is still young](https://ourworldindata.org/internet-history-just-begun). Only 63% of the world’s population [was online](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-individuals-using-the-internet) in 2023. The Internet provides an almost endless list of services: it allows us to communicate and collaborate worldwide, send money internationally (including [remittances](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/personal-remittances-oda)), [learn and educate](https://ourworldindata.org/global-education) others, form cross-border [social connections](https://ourworldindata.org/social-connections-and-loneliness), share news, and many others. On this page, you can find all our data, visualizations, and writing relating to the Internet. ## Research & Writing * https://docs.google.com/document/d/1lrN8zZo1tKXiCCI2US1CMkIf0tFSx37d3PU_D89u6Xo/edit ,* https://docs.google.com/document/d/1whkiE8G_Ja1VdRvjyU1L0ptYksxSLnkBajQ5Q_KlNpE/edit ,* https://docs.google.com/document/d/1oUt6cIxmOGlbZcCbY0846sGXc60AQBO-0LMDJZSUcF8/edit <AllCharts heading="Interactive Charts on the Internet"/> | Internet | |
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"text": " Countries in the European Union tend to have the largest number of policies. Countries across Sub-Saharan Africa and some parts of Asia have far fewer. Most countries in the EU have more than 90 policies, compared to less than 20 across most of Africa.",
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"text": "This intensity-weighted metric is shown in the map below. The overall distribution is similar, which is not surprising. If anything, adjusting for intensity widens the gap between countries. That\u2019s because the metrics are positively correlated, according to the researchers: countries with more policies also tend to have stronger enforcement and lower levels of corruption.",
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"text": "The European Union and the United States use about five times as much fertilizer per hectare as the African average. Within Africa, many countries use much less than this \u2014 as little as a few kilograms per hectare. Some lower-income countries use almost no fertilizers or pesticides and have little to regulate. This is shown in the chart below.",
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"text": "We\u2019ll discuss some policy \u201cfailures\u201d later. But let\u2019s first examine some clear examples of policies that have effectively achieved their goals.",
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"text": "Countries across Europe have implemented policies to reduce fertilizer use. Many have been successful. As I mentioned earlier, a blanket ban on fertilizers, or even reduction policies in countries where farmers use very little, is likely detrimental. This is not the case in Europe: many farmers still overapply fertilizers, often with little benefit to yields.",
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"text": " in the 1990s and the first decade of the 2000s due to reforms in the EU\u2019s Common Agricultural Policy. Consumption dropped by at least one-third, with some countries seeing over 40% reductions. That\u2019s despite most countries ",
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"text": "China has also managed to turn the tide on fertilizer use. As you can see in the chart below, fertilizer consumption was growing rapidly from the 1960s to the early 2000s. But it peaked around 2015 and is now falling.",
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"text": "China has focused on using fertilizers more efficiently. To achieve this, it introduced various subsidy programs for farmers. The result has been a reduction in nutrient inputs while yields ",
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"text": "In 2015, China also introduced a \u201czero-growth pesticide policy\u201d to reduce the overconsumption of pesticides. Again \u2014 as you can see from the chart below \u2014 it has achieved its goal. What\u2019s impressive is how quickly this happened: use fell immediately, and in less than five years, it has seen an impressive drop. Various monitoring programs across the country have already noticed a reduction in the concentration of pesticides in rivers.",
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"text": "I\u2019ve picked only a few examples, but other cross-country studies find that environmental policies and practices matter. Researchers David Wuepper, Fiona Tang, and Robert Finger find that a third of the differences in pesticide pollution risk between countries can be attributed to their agricultural policies.",
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"text": "When looking at the number and stringency of policies, they find that more than 40% of the differences in soil erosion rates across country borders can be explained by differences in policies.",
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"text": " Policies also explain many differences in forest loss and restoration rates.",
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"text": "Agri-environmental policies do matter. They can make the difference between unsustainable versus efficient use of fertilizers and pesticides, cut rates of soil erosion, and transform countries from net losers to net gainers of forest.",
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"text": "Earlier, we saw the damaging effects of Sri Lanka's abrupt ban on chemical fertilizers. That\u2019s just one example of where policy design \u2014 or lack thereof \u2014 can go wrong.",
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"text": "Policies can have negative impacts in a few ways. First, they might not consider trade-offs with other environmental issues. As David Wuepper and colleagues note in their study on pesticide reductions, promoting organic farming ",
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"text": " That means farmers must use more land or displace food production to other countries that might use even more pesticides.",
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"text": "That brings us to the second point: policies in one country can have negative impacts that spill over to others.",
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"text": ", researchers looked at what would happen to greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture if England and Wales went fully organic.",
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"text": " Domestic emissions would fall; in this regard, it would be a policy \u201cwin\u201d. But there would also be a significant shortfall in food supplies, requiring the two countries to import more food from elsewhere. When these agricultural emissions are included, total emissions would ",
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"text": "You can imagine similar examples for measures such as land use or forestry. Countries could reduce their farmland area and increase their forest cover while driving more land use and forest loss in other countries. And it\u2019s not just about environmental spillovers: poor policies can also impact food prices, access, and security. Researchers note, for example, that a rise in organic farming in rich countries could raise food prices for consumers in poorer ones.",
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"text": "Environmental impacts are mostly offshored when there are large differences in policies across countries. The European Union or the United States can\u2019t offshore deforestation to Brazil if the latter has a zero-deforestation mandate. The United Kingdom can\u2019t displace water pollution to India if it has tight controls on fertilizer and pesticide runoff. If ",
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"text": "First, they can\u2019t force other countries to adopt the same policies. In some cases, they would cause a lot of harm. Restricting fertilizer and pesticide use for farmers who can only afford small amounts can ruin their harvests and livelihoods for very little environmental benefit.",
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"text": "This is harder for metrics such as deforestation, land use, fertilizer, or pesticide consumption, but many organizations are making progress. ",
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"text": ", for example, uses trade and geospatial data to map deforestation in the supply chains of products such as beef, palm oil, soy, and cocoa. Countries and companies can then see where their products are coming from and whether they\u2019ve increased the risk of deforestation.",
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"text": " of seven imported commodities \u2014 beef, soy, palm oil, wood, cocoa, coffee, and rubber \u2014 if grown on recently deforested land. Even then, the total impacts are not straightforward: this could reduce environmental pressures but negatively impact smallholder farmers in other countries if they lose some of their export markets.",
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"text": "Many thanks to Max Roser, Edouard Mathieu and David Wuepper for their valuable feedback and comments on this article.",
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"text": "Wuepper, D., Crowther, T., Lauber, T., Routh, D., Le Clec'h, S., Garrett, R. D., & B\u00f6rner, J. (2024). Public policies and global forest conservation: Empirical evidence from national borders. Global Environmental Change.",
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1 | 2024-03-27 11:47:20 | 2024-04-22 14:25:03 | 2024-04-22 14:23:39 | listed | ALBJ4LuNcdX6xabYv4WqUDWPb5wEWq2vX_jiqjlgSMRlJeF3rSXYCJ2Q06IS_0C7enRC5Owi-dAapDt8UbdlgA | Agriculture is a difficult problem to solve. It feeds 8 billion people but is also one of the world’s most environmentally damaging sectors. It’s the [leading driver](https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food) of deforestation, biodiversity loss, land use, freshwater withdrawals, and water pollution. The world will need effective governmental policies — called agro-environmental policies — and innovations in sustainable food technologies if we want to reduce these impacts while feeding [9 or 10 billion people](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/population-and-demography?facet=none&Metric=Population&Sex=Both+sexes&Age+group=Total&Projection+Scenario=Medium&country=~OWID_WRL). You might think, then, that the obvious thing to do is to have more and more policies focused on reducing its environmental impacts. But this assumes that all policies are effective and don’t impose trade-offs with food production or socioeconomic outcomes. This is not always the case. Sri Lanka is a particularly dramatic case showing how rash and poorly designed policies can lead to tragic consequences. In mid-2021, the government [abruptly banned](https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2022/07/19/what-lies-behind-sri-lankas-collapse/) the import of chemical fertilizers. On an agri-environmental policy scorecard, this might have looked good. Fertilizer use — which can cause pollution — plummeted. But it caused dramatic losses in the country’s food supplies. Rice production [fell by](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/global-food?tab=chart&facet=none&Food=Rice&Metric=Production&Per+Capita=false&country=~LKA) almost 40% from 2021 to 2022. The production of key export crops, such as tea and rubber, also fell significantly. The country spiraled into an economic crisis. While this crisis is not entirely the result of its fertilizer ban — the import ban was partly in response to economic problems — it made things worse.1 The lack of planning or foresight made this policy so damaging. Farmers had no time to find nutrient alt… | How effective are policies in reducing the environmental impacts of agriculture? | |
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"text": " that the share of young adults between the ages of 18 and 24 living with an unmarried partner went up from 0.1% to 9.4% over the period 1968-2018; and according to a ",
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"text": " from Pew Research, today most Americans favor allowing unmarried couples to have the same legal rights as married couples.",
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"text": "The increase in cohabitation is the result of the two changes that we discussed above: fewer people are choosing to marry and those people who do get married tend to do so when they are older and often live with their partner before getting married. In the UK, for example, 85% of people who get married cohabited first.",
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"text": "Long-run data on the share of people living in cohabitation across countries is not available, but some related data points are: in particular, the proportion of births outside marriage provides a relevant proxy measure, allowing comparisons across countries and time; if more unmarried people are having children, it suggests that more people are entering long-term cohabiting relationships without first getting married. It isn\u2019t a perfect proxy \u2013 as we\u2019ll see below, rates of single parenting have also changed, meaning that rates of births outside marriage will not match perfectly with cohabitation rates \u2013 but it provides some information regarding the direction of change.",
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"text": "The chart here shows the percentage of all children who were born to unmarried parents.",
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"text": "As we can see, the share of children born outside of marriage has increased substantially in almost all OECD countries in recent decades. The exception is Japan, where there has been only a very minor increase.",
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"text": "In 1970, most OECD countries saw less than 10% of children born outside of marriage. In 2014, the share had increased to more than 20% in most countries, and to more than half in some.",
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"text": "The trend is not restricted to very rich countries. In Mexico and Costa Rica, for example, the increase has been very large, and today the majority of children are born to unmarried parents.",
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"text": "Globally, the percentage of women in either marriage or cohabitation is decreasing, but only slightly",
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"text": "In recent decades there has been a decline in global marriage rates, and at the same time, there has been an increase in cohabitation. What\u2019s the combined effect if we consider marriage and cohabitation together?",
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"text": "The chart below plots estimates and projections, from the UN Population Division, for the percentage of women of reproductive age (15 to 49 years) who are either married or living with an unmarried partner.",
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"text": "Overall, the trend shows a global decline \u2013 but only a relatively small one, from 69% in 1970 to 64% projected for 2020. At any given point in the last five decades, around two-thirds of all women were married or cohabitated.",
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"text": "This chart shows the share of households of a single parent living with dependent children. There are large differences between countries.",
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"text": "The causes and situations leading to single parenting are varied, and unsurprisingly, single-parent families are very diverse in terms of socio-economic background and living arrangements, across countries, within countries, and over time. However, there are some common patterns:",
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"text": "Women head the majority of single-parent households, and this gender gap tends to be stronger for parents of younger children. Across OECD countries, about 12% of children aged 0-5 years live with a single parent; 92% of these live with their mother.",
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"text": "Single-parent households are among the most financially vulnerable groups. This is true even in rich countries. According to ",
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"text": ", across European countries, 47% of single-parent households were \u201cat risk of poverty or social exclusion\u201d in 2017, compared with 21% of two-parent households.",
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"text": "Single parenting was probably more common a couple of centuries ago. But single parenting back then was often caused by ",
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"text": " rather than choice or relationship breakdown; it was also typically short in duration since remarriage rates were high.",
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"text": "Marriage equality is increasingly considered a human and civil right, with important political, social, and religious implications around the world.",
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"text": "In 1989, Denmark became the first country to recognize a legal relationship for same-sex couples, establishing \u2018registered partnerships\u2019 granting those in same-sex relationships ",
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"text": "It took more than a decade for same-sex marriage to be legal anywhere in the world. In December 2000, the Netherlands became the first country to establish same-sex marriage by law.",
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"text": "This map shows in green all the countries where same-sex marriage is legal.",
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"text": "Many of the countries that allow same-sex marriage are in Western Europe. But same-sex marriage is also legal in other parts of the world, especially in North and South America.",
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"text": "The rate of adoption of marriage equality legislation over time gives us some perspective on just how quickly things have changed. The first chart shows that in the year 2000, same-sex marriage was not legal in any country \u2013 two decades later it was legal in many more.",
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"text": " are one of the key factors that have enabled the legal transformations that are making same-sex marriage increasingly possible.",
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"text": "The second chart shows that the number of people living in countries that have legalized same-sex marriage has also increased a lot.",
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"text": "And as the third chart shows, same-sex sexual acts are now legal in a majority of all countries",
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"text": "Despite these positive trends, much remains to be done to improve the rights of LGBTQ people. In some countries people are imprisoned and even killed simply because of their sexual orientation or gender identity; and even in countries where same-sex sexual activity is legal, these groups of people face violence and discrimination.",
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"text": "Across the world, fewer people are choosing to marry, and those who do marry are, on average, doing so later in life.\u00a0 The underlying drivers of these trends include the ",
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"text": ", the increase of female participation in labor markets (as we explain in our article ",
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"text": "), and the transformation of institutional and legal environments, such as new legislation conferring more rights on unmarried couples.",
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"text": "These changes have led to a broad transformation of family structures. In the last decades, many countries have seen an increase in cohabitation, and it is becoming more common for children to live with a single parent, or with parents who are not married.",
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"text": "These changes have come together with a large and significant shift in people\u2019s perceptions of the types of family structures that are possible, acceptable, and desirable. Perhaps the clearest example of this is the ",
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"text": "The de-institutionalization of marriage and the rise of new family models since the middle of the 20th-century show that social institutions that have been around for thousands of years can change very rapidly.",
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"text": "Divorce rates increased after 1970 \u2013 in recent decades the trends very much differ between countries",
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"text": "How have divorce rates changed over time? Are divorces on the rise across the world?",
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"text": "In the chart here we show the crude divorce rate \u2013 the number of divorces per 1,000 people in the country.",
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"text": "When we zoom out and look at the large-scale picture at the global or regional level since the 1970s, we see an overall increase in divorce rates. The UN in its ",
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"text": " notes that there is a general upward trend: \"at the world level, the proportion of adults aged 35-39 who are divorced or separated has doubled, passing from 2% in the 1970s to 4% in the 2000s.\"",
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"text": "But, when we look more closely at the data we can also see that this misses two key insights: there are notable differences between countries; and it fails to capture the pattern of these changes in the period from the 1990s to today.",
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"text": "As we see in the chart, for many countries divorce rates increased markedly between the 1970s and 1990s. In the US, divorce rates more than doubled from 2.2 per 1,000 in 1960 to over 5 per 1,000 in the 1980s. In the UK, Norway, and South Korea, divorce rates more than tripled. Since then divorce rates declined in many countries.",
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"text": "In the chart, the US stands out as a bit of an outlier, with consistently higher divorce rates than most other countries, but also an earlier 'peak'. South Korea had a much later 'peak', with divorce rates continuing to rise until the early 2000s. In other countries \u2013 such as Mexico and Turkey \u2013 divorces continue to rise.",
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"text": "The pattern of rising divorce rates, followed by a plateau or fall in some countries (particularly richer countries) might be partially explained by the differences in ",
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"text": "Economists Betsey Stevenson and Justin Wolfers looked in detail at the changes and driving forces in marriage and divorce rates in the US.",
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"text": " They suggest that the changes we see in divorce rates may be partly reflective of the changes in expectations within marriages as women enter the workforce. Women who married before the large ",
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"text": " may have found themselves in marriages where expectations were no longer suited. Many people in the postwar years married someone who was probably a good match for the postwar culture but ended up being the wrong partner after the times had changed. This may have been a driver behind the steep rise in divorces throughout the 1970s and 1980s.",
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"text": "Trends in crude divorce rates give us a general overview of how many divorces happen each year but need to be interpreted with caution. First, crude rates mix a large number of cohorts \u2013 both older and young couples; and second, they do not account for how the number of marriages is changing.",
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"text": "To understand how patterns of divorce are changing it is more helpful to look at the percentage of marriages that end in divorce and look in more detail at these patterns by cohort.",
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"text": "Let's take a look at a country where divorce rates have been declining in recent decades.",
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"text": "This is also true for marriages in the UK. This chart shows the cumulative share of marriages that ended in divorce: each line represents the year in which couples were married. A useful way to compare different age cohorts is by the steepness of the line: steeper lines indicate a faster accumulation of divorces year-on-year, particularly in the earlier stages of marriages.",
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"text": "For a discussion of historical remarriage patterns see for example Van Poppel, F. (1998). Nineteenth-century remarriage patterns in the Netherlands. The Journal of interdisciplinary history, 28(3), 343-383. Available ",
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"text": "For details see Adamczyk, A., & Liao, Y. C. (2019). Examining public opinion about LGBTQ-related issues in the United States and across multiple nations. Annual Review of Sociology, 45, 401-423.",
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"subtitle": "How is the institution of marriage changing? What percentage of marriages end in divorce? Explore global data on marriages and divorces.",
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"featured-image": "marriages-and-divorces-thumbnail.png"
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1 | 2023-11-10 14:32:42 | 2020-07-25 13:33:09 | 2023-12-28 16:31:12 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lt7dGSPdhAHKaLl5HH7zh97_gPE96bd-nLIyr8JTMLSV0HhInUBcK4qW-grxJkSSIBHNCnPh4RB4nNHdw | Marriage, as a social institution, has been around for thousands of years.1 With things that are thousands of years old, it’s easy to assume that they can only change slowly. But developments since the middle of the 20th century show that this assumption is wrong: in many countries marriages are becoming less common, people are marrying later, unmarried couples are increasingly choosing to live together, and in many countries we are seeing a ‘decoupling’ of parenthood and marriage. Within the last decades the institution of marriage has changed more than in thousands of years before. Here we present the data behind these fast and widespread changes and discuss some of the main drivers behind them. ## Marriages are becoming less common ### In many countries marriage rates are declining The proportion of people who are getting married is going down in many countries across the world. The chart here shows this trend for a selection of countries. It combines data from multiple sources, including statistical country offices and reports from the UN, Eurostat and the OECD. You can change the selection of countries using the option Add Country directly in the interactive chart. #### Marriage rates in the US over the last century For the US we have data on marriage rates going back to the start of the 20th century. This lets us see when the decline started, and trace the influence of social and economic changes during the process. * In 1920, shortly after the First World War, there were 12 marriages annually for every 1,000 people in the US. Marriages in the US then were almost twice as common as today. * In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the rate fell sharply. In the 1930s marriages became again more common and in 1946 – the year after the Second World War ended – marriages reached a peak of 16.4 marriages per 1,000 people. * Marriage rates fell again in the 1950s and then bounced back in the 1960s. * The long decline started in the 1970s. Since 1972, marriage rates in the US have fallen by almost 50%, a… | Marriages and Divorces | |
| 1tn0-A9OOYtiGTOgknhoz3eSisNfhMlRCqPEWvLlFtbc | covid-excess-mortality | article | {
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"text": "Table 1: Sources of comparative excess mortality data for Europe, the UK and the US, and other countries",
"title": "Table 1: Sources of comparative excess mortality data for Europe, the UK and the US, and other countries",
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"text": "Box 1: Measures of excess mortality: P-scores, per capita excess mortality and Z-scores",
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"text": "4.1 Can we compare the different statistical measures for excess mortality (from all causes) across countries?",
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"text": "Table 2: Our P-scores/variant P-scores and EuroMOMO\u2019s Z-scores for poor performers showing peak weeks of excess mortality in the first wave of the pandemic",
"title": "Table 2: Our P-scores/variant P-scores and EuroMOMO\u2019s Z-scores for poor performers showing peak weeks of excess mortality in the first wave of the pandemic",
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"text": "7.1 Toward comparable international statistics on excess deaths amongst care home residents",
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"text": " (Institute for New Economic Thinking, and Nuffield College, University of Oxford), alongside Charlie Giattino and Hannah Ritchie (Our World in Data, University of Oxford).",
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"text": "We now source data on confirmed cases and deaths from the WHO. You can find the most up-to-date data for all countries in our ",
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"title": "The US excess mortality rate from COVID-19 is substantially worse than Europe\u2019s",
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"text": "Excess mortality is a count of deaths from all causes relative to what would normally have been expected. In a pandemic, deaths rise sharply, but causes are often inaccurately recorded, particularly when reliable tests are not widely available. The ",
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"text": " attributed to Covid-19 may thus be significantly undercounted. Excess mortality data overcome two problems in reporting Covid-19-related deaths. Miscounting from misdiagnosis or under-reporting of Covid-19-related deaths is avoided. Excess mortality data include \u2018collateral damage\u2019 from other health conditions, left untreated if the health system is overwhelmed by Covid-19 cases, or by deliberate actions that prioritise patients with Covid-19 over those with other symptoms.",
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"text": "In a pandemic, measures taken by governments and by individuals also influence death rates. For example, deaths from traffic accidents may decline but suicide rates may rise. Excess mortality captures the net outcome of all these factors. Figure 1 illustrates how the degree of Covid-19 recording relative to excess deaths has varied across some European countries. In Belgium, with a broad definition of what constitutes a Covid-19 death, the excess over 100 percent might suggest that most excess deaths are due to Covid-19 and other deaths, such as those due to road accidents, may have declined.",
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"text": "For country comparisons (where under-recording may differ), policy-makers should examine ",
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"text": "expressed relative to the benchmarks of 'normal' deaths. \u2018Normal\u2019 death rates reflect persistent factors such as the age composition of the population, the incidence of smoking and air pollution, the prevalence of obesity, poverty and inequality, and the normal quality of health service delivery. Estimating the virus reproduction rate, ",
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"text": ", is crucial for assessing the rate and nature of relaxation of lockdowns.",
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"text": " Excess death figures could help to avoid the measurement biases inherent in other data typically used to estimate R in epidemiological models.",
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"text": "Figure 1: Attributed Covid-19 deaths as a percentage of excess deaths for poor performers (\u2018all ages\u2019): cumulated over pandemic weeks",
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"text": "National statistical agencies publish actual weekly deaths and averages of past \u2018normal\u2019 deaths. For example, the Office for National Statistics (ONS) reports \u2018normal\u2019 deaths for England and for Wales as the average of the previous five years\u2019 deaths. However, there are no published benchmarks for more granular or disaggregated data, such as sub-regions or cities. Using the weekly historical data, researchers could calculate such benchmarks with some effort. The ratio or percentage of excess deaths relative to \u2018normal\u2019 deaths, the P-score, is an easily understood measure of excess mortality, see Box 1. We argue that national statistical offices should publish P-scores for states and sub-regions. In the U.S., the National Centre for Health Statistics publishes data on excess deaths and a variant on P-scores (see Box 1), defining excess deaths as deviations from \u2018normal\u2019 deaths plus a margin adjusting for the uncertainty of the data.",
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"text": " These data include counties and states, and are disaggregated by gender, age and ethnicity. The NCHS thus sets an international standard for statistical agencies.",
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"text": "However, to obtain cross-European comparisons requires data collation from individual national agencies to construct P-scores or variant P-scores, which are largely comparable, see section 4.1. Another alternative are the Z-scores compiled by EuroMOMO",
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"text": " for 24 states, see Box 1. EuroMOMO\u2019s measures of weekly excess mortality in Europe show the mortality patterns between different time-periods, across countries, and by age-groups. The Z-scores standardise data on excess deaths by scaling by the standard deviation of deaths. EuroMOMO are currently not permitted to publish actual excess death figures by country and do not publish the standard deviations used in their calculations. However, they graph the Z-scores and the estimated confidence intervals back to 2015 providing a visual guide to their variability. In contrast to the P-scores, the Z-scores are a measure that is less easily interpretable. Moreover, if the natural variability of the weekly data is lower in one country compared to another, then the Z-scores could lead to exaggeration of excess mortality compared to the P-scores. Strictly, the Z-scores are not comparable across countries, though see the caveats in section 4.1.",
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"text": "At least five separate journalistic endeavours have recently engaged in the time-consuming effort of collating and presenting more transparent excess mortality data, see Table 1. The Financial Times plots numbers of excess deaths, and the P-score or percentage of deaths that are above normal deaths. The Economist shows figures and graphics for excess deaths but not P-scores. However, the published estimates of P-scores in newspapers give only a recent snapshot, missing the context of historical variability provided by EuroMOMO. And we only have P-scores for some countries, regions and cities. A third measure of excess mortality is per capita excess mortality, where excess deaths (actual deaths minus \u2018normal\u2019 deaths) are divided by population, see Box 1, is used by the BBC (Table 1).",
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{
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"text": "Graphs published for each country show the weekly Z-scores since 2015 compared to their usual range of -2 to +2, the approximate 95% confidence interval. Around 2.5% of observations would thus usually have a Z-value over 2. The Z-score equals 4 line is also shown, corresponding to a \u2018substantial increase\u2019: under usual conditions, the Z-value would exceed 4 only around 0.003% of the time.",
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"text": "There are several reasons for wanting to compare excess mortality between regions or countries. The first is simply to compare the death toll of the first wave of the pandemic. Useful aggregate measures include the count of excess deaths relative to normal deaths, for example, the P-score, and excess deaths relative to population size, see Box 1. The second of these measures has the problem that older populations tend to have higher normal death counts. This measure of excess deaths will overstate the incidence of the pandemic in older compared to younger populations. For the second reason, that of evaluating the effectiveness of policy responses, one needs to dig deeper, and the simple measures above require further interpretation. Countries may differ in the size of the initial source of infection, in their age structure, in the distribution of co-morbidities in the population and the prevalence of dense urban centres, making some countries more vulnerable. Comparing age-standardised mortality can be helpful in controlling for differences in age structures. Finally, the third motivation for comparisons is a purely objective one of improving the scientific understanding of the dynamics of the spread of infections, their incidence and the death rates of those infected. Key to this last endeavour is the production of granular data, i.e. disaggregation of excess deaths data by age, gender, region, and, where possible, socio-economic categories.",
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"text": "A recent controversy in the UK amongst statisticians has served to reinforce the point of our paper, which is that there can be international comparability ",
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"text": " of excess mortality with aggregate and more granular P-score data. There are already widely available granular data sets on related aspects such as inequality and urban density, which could be combined with such data for illuminating the comparisons across countries and revealing the effectiveness of different types of policy. Ideally there should be transparent definitions of data and comparability of definitions across nations which may involve coordination by existing international bodies for standards of data dissemination. This will evolve over time but does not preclude analysis ",
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"text": ". Important is the accessibility of data to all, especially modellers in the fields of epidemiology, economics and sociology. Scientific analysis with appropriate data is needed to inform policy ",
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"text": " because not only may there may be successive waves of the pandemic in each country, but many countries experiencing later pandemic crises have the potential to reignite infections in earlier countries when borders are open, and there may be pandemics in future years.",
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"text": "Turning to the controversy, Spiegelhalter (2020a) in a Guardian article on 30th April 2020 made valid points about data definitional differences and poor collection of data across some countries of Covid-19 infection and mortality rates. We are in agreement on this, but although he discusses the more reliable data on excess mortality, he argues that we will have to wait for months if not years before we can begin making useful comparisons across countries. However, given that the first wave of the pandemic in Europe has neared its end in most countries, ",
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"text": " is a good time to make international comparisons at least within Europe. \u00a0Indeed, on 4 May 2020, a letter",
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"text": " from three statistics professors, Philip Brown,\u00a0James Smith\u00a0and\u00a0Henry Wynn\u00a0disputed Spiegelhalter\u2019s claims saying: \u201cYes, there are inconsistencies, underreporting and heterogeneity within countries, but the policies adopted by different countries show very large differences in effects that would seem to dwarf such worries.\u201d Their concern was that the article would deflect criticism of the political handling of the crisis (and indeed it had already in their view). They argue that comparisons combined with careful modelling are needed ",
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"text": " to explain variations in mortality rates and infection rates across locations toward improved policy. They cite for instance a U.S. modelling endeavour, Rubin et al. (2020), the latest version of which analyses and forecasts US county level data on death rates, taking into account local factors across US counties including population density, incidence of smoking and social distancing as measured by cell phone movement data. The statisticians suggest that such modelling tools are appropriate to apply to country comparisons, and critical for modelling testing and tracing to the community level. We emphasise this modelling point more broadly in section 8.",
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"text": "To interpret large differences in excess mortality between nations requires consideration of several factors, and the within-nation deviations in these factors: the average infection rates in preceding weeks, average mortality risk from Covid-19 for those infected (the case fatality rate) and constraints on Covid-19-specific health capacity.",
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"text": "Turning to the first of the factors, consider differences in infection rates. Compare two countries or regions with the same average Covid-19 mortality risk where 1 percent of all adults are infected in A, while 5 percent are infected in B. Then the rate of excess deaths for adults measured by the P-score will be about 5 times as large in B in the weeks following the incidence of the infection. Countries that locked down early and had effective test, trace and isolate procedures kept down the average infection rate and hence the excess death rate.",
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"text": "Within countries, infection rates can differ. London\u2019s higher excess mortality was influenced by higher initial imports of infections and a higher virus reproduction number given its high density and hard-to-avoid close physical contact on public transport and at work. Thus, countries that have a higher fraction of adults in locations or occupations where the virus can more easily spread will tend to have higher excess death rates.",
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"text": "Mortality risks for infected adults, the second of the factors mentioned above, can differ between and within countries. For example, the percentage increase in mortality risk may be greater for some ethnic groups, or for some co-morbidities such as diabetes or pre-existing lung conditions. Then country differences in the prevalence of obesity and smoking will influence comparative excess mortality. Lastly, a country\u2019s excess mortality is further driven up, and potentially ",
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"text": "further, by limited Covid-19-specific health capacity. The death rate among infected adults depends on capacity constraints on numbers of hospital beds and staff, numbers of ventilators, PPE, testing and logistical failures in delivery, e.g. to care homes. Given similar initial capacities, a country with a higher average infection rate will be more likely to run into these constraints. By the same logic, given the same high infection rate, a country with lower health capacity would have a higher rate of excess mortality. This is why there is such a focus on \u2018flattening the pandemic curve\u2019. Different capacity constraints can have different implications for different groups. For example, lack of PPE and testing facilities in care homes will have disproportionately larger effects on mortality for the oldest individuals and this could affect country comparisons.",
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"text": "Covid-19, therefore, interacts with the age distribution, the nature of health service delivery, poverty and inequality, ethnic and occupational structures, air pollution, the relative size of major conurbations and so on. Comparing rates of excess mortality statistics within countries by age groups, by city size and by occupational, social and ethnic groups should generate important insights for future pandemic policy.",
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"text": "Finally, it should be considered whether excess mortality statistics alone are sufficient to measure the impact of a pandemic. The health economics literature has given attention to Quality Adjusted Life Expectancy (QALY) as a criterion for expenditure on health-improving policies. QALYs measure the number of reasonably healthy years a person might expect to live. The number of QALYs lost could supplement the increased death count resulting from the pandemic as a measure of its impact. However, detailed actuarial and medical information is entailed in the complex estimation of the number of QALYs lost. QALYs and the attachment of monetary values to QALYs have long been controversial, see Loomes and Mackenzie (1989), but the concept of a QALY does focus attention on the relative value (by age group) of expected years lost in a pandemic. The excess mortality of working age adults with a normal life expectancy of 30 years might be weighed against the excess mortality of 85-year olds with a life expectancy of 5 years. If the choice is to attach more weight to excess mortality for working age adults this will affect comparisons of countries with different age-specific mortality rates, see section 7.",
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"text": "Comparisons between relatively homogeneous countries with moderate population sizes (such as European countries, Japan and Korea) and large countries such as China and the U.S., which span very diverse regions with potentially very different timings and incidence of the pandemic, are necessarily difficult. For the latter, it makes far more sense to compare populous regions or states with nation states of comparable scale.",
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"text": "P-scores, per capita measures of excess deaths and Z-scores use the concept of \u2018normal deaths\u2019 in their numerator by comparing raw death figures with what would normally have been expected. Assuming that the data definitions for the death counts, such as the definition of the week, type of death count data collected (registration versus occurrence data, see below) and timeliness of the collection, are identical across countries (which they are not, see the next sub-section), we consider the relative comparability of the statistical measures described in section 2. For any measure, it is clear that cumulating actual deaths and normal deaths over the period of the first wave of a pandemic gives a more robust summary of its impact, as compared to examining only the peak week.",
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"text": "are robustly comparable across countries, with the caveat that the measure of \u2018normal deaths\u2019 is likely to be only approximate (see below). However, the underlying death count data do need to be transparent and fully comparable to make the comparisons valid, see section 4.2.",
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"text": "Variant P-scores add an allowance for historic data variability to the normal number of deaths to define an upper threshold (supposedly based on the 95 percent confidence interval around normal deaths). They define excess deaths relative to that threshold and scale by the same threshold to compute a percentage. The variant P-score is therefore always a bit below the simple P-score but tracks it closely. Because the variant is more complex, the simple P-score is preferable. It can always be accompanied by an indication of the margin of uncertainty around estimated normal deaths. When cumulated over a number of weeks, that margin of uncertainty falls so that there is then even less difference between the simple and variant measures (see Figure 3).",
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"text": "Scaling excess deaths by population is obviously better than attempting to compare crude excess death counts for countries with vastly different populations. However, countries with older populations will tend to have higher normal death rates. This automatically means that countries like Italy with an older population will have higher measures of per capita excess mortality than countries with younger populations, such as England. Therefore, comparisons of per capita excess mortality need to be made with caution. A possible argument in favour of per capita excess mortality is that total population could be regarded as a rough proxy for the ability of the society to absorb excess deaths. However, on that logic, dividing excess deaths by the working age population would make more sense.",
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"text": "should not be compared across countries of very different sizes, though they are useful for comparing the profile of weekly excess deaths for an individual country. The reason is, that countries with small populations and therefore more noisy weekly counts of mortality, have higher standard deviations relative to normal deaths than the more populous countries. In practice, due to the inappropriate assumption of the Poisson distribution (see Appendix 1), the excess mortality rankings between countries are more similar to the P-scores than expected.",
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"text": "The Poisson is likely to be poor approximation to the stochastic process for number of deaths, even in what EuroMOMO call ",
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"text": "seasons. EuroMOMO exclude Winter and Summer because of systematic shifts in mean deaths due to \u2018flu, bad weather or heat waves. But it seems extreme to assume there are no systematic shifts in mean deaths throughout Spring and Autumn. If there are excess deaths due to a bad \u2018flu in Winter, then in Spring below-average excess deaths should result. There are other examples, such as a measles outbreak, or changes in support for the homeless or for care homes (e.g. from fiscal austerity measures), that may affect mortality rates. There could also be time-varying clusters of different influences - such as a varying previous exposure to risks such as smoking - among the most vulnerable age groups. Thus, the constant ",
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"text": " such as these which shift the mean will be included in the measure, as well as random noise (see Box 2). Hence, Z-scores include these systematic features in the denominator and numerator. The paradox is that this makes the Z-scores somewhat more comparable for countries of different sizes (see Appendix 1). The Z-scores indicate approximately (given the Poisson assumption) in which weeks excess deaths were statistically significant; \u00a0hence they can in principle distinguish those countries with few, if any, weeks of excess deaths (e.g. Germany), from countries with many weeks of excess deaths (e.g. Belgium), irrespective of their large population size differences.",
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"text": "These quite high correlations imply systematic factors common to all regions. Thus, the Poisson distribution cannot be correct as it assumes independence between regions and over time. Moreover, simple regressions between the Z-scores for Wales, Scotland and N. Ireland and that for England, give coefficients, respectively, of 0.32 (0.089), 0.30 (0.088) and 0.29 (0.092), with standard errors in parentheses. In reverse, a multiple regression of the Z-score for England on all the others gives: Wales 0.29 (0.097); Scotland 0.25 (0.099); N. Ireland 0.24 (0.094)",
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"text": ". \u00a0If they shared the same concept of normal or expected deaths, the Z/P ratio would equal the ratio of \u2018normal\u2019 deaths to their standard deviation. Under the constant mean Poisson assumption, this ratio would be proportional to the square root of the number of normal deaths. We lack access to EuroMOMO\u2019s estimates of the normal number of deaths, but these should be close to the previous 5 years\u2019 average. The ranking (high to low) of the estimated Z/P ratios in the peak week of the pandemic for the different countries, should be the same as their ranking by the normal number of deaths. EuroMOMO adjusts the Poisson assumption with a small allowance for extra dispersion but this should not affect the ranking.",
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"text": "Even if we deem the P-scores and the population-deflated statistics to be comparable across countries, underlying measurement issues of the death count, strongly affect the comparability across countries. These definitional differences need to be highlighted and made transparent across country data providers and international organisations reporting excess mortality statistics. The transparent reportage of the Human Mortality Database is exemplary in this regard.",
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"text": "Perhaps the biggest single pitfall for comparability may arise from the accuracy of the raw mortality data. In our VoxEU article (Aron and Muellbauer, 2020a) we highlighted the advantages of excess mortality data over recorded Covid-deaths, see also section 1, assuming that the collection of data on deaths from all causes would be relatively up-to-date and complete.",
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"text": "Yet countries differ in the efficiency of their death registration systems, particularly where those systems are devolved to regional or local administrations. Then, problems in one location can affect or delay the nationaI data, and sometimes the national recording system can be slow to absorb regional information. In a pandemic, it can happen that the capacity of systems is temporarily overwhelmed, most of all in hotspots, often in urban areas. Occasionally the recording methods may be so weak overall, that the observers resort to data on burials.",
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"text": ". Raw deaths were suddenly revised up by around 12,000, back to early March. Catalonia, whose capital is Barcelona, accounted for well over half of these increases, followed by the regions of Madrid and Castilla La Mancha. A closer look at the data revisions by age shows that the bulk of the revisions were for those aged 75 or more. This is consistent with news reports of the many deaths in care homes.",
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"text": " As we shall see, the upward revision in the Spanish data currently places Spain neck and neck with England as the European country with the highest cumulative P-score for the \u2018all ages\u2019 group (Table 2), whereas previous data put England\u2019s all-age P-score well ahead.",
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"text": "Another difference is between the death counts by week of registration of the death and week of actual occurrence of the death. The registration data occur later than the occurrence data. EuroMOMO Z-scores apparently use data by occurrence for all reporting countries, see Table 1.",
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"text": "The occurrence-data are particularly prone to revision, and with the lags of registration data behind occurrence data often increasing during the height of a pandemic. Comparability in dating the peak week of mortality is sensitive to how the data are recorded. For example, in the UK, the peak week for all underlying regions is week 15 using occurrence data, as for the EuroMOMO Z-scores in Table 2. By contrast, death counts based on registration data for the UK show peak weeks of week 17 for N. Ireland, week 16 for England and Wales and week 15 for Scotland, see Table 2. Figure 2 compares for England the occurrence and registration data in calculated P-scores.",
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"text": "Figure 2: Peak of pandemic occurred earlier than when registrations were recorded: contrasting \u2018all age\u2019 excess mortality P-scores for England by registration or occurrence data",
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"text": "The 5-year average could be a crude estimate of normal deaths, e.g. if there are time trends in mortality. If mortality is on an improving trend, normal deaths would be over-estimated by the 5-year average. On the other hand, where populations are increasing or are ageing, the count of normal deaths could also be rising. EuroMOMO use statistical models to adjust for such trends but do not provide their estimates of \u2018normal\u2019/expected deaths.",
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"text": "If spring is especially warm as has been the case in Europe in 2020, it is possible that the 5-year average overestimates expected deaths, taking the weather into account. In the latter case, the simple P-score would then underestimate the impact of the pandemic. Also note that not just the effects of the pandemic but of societal reactions, whether driven by government regulation or private behaviour, will be reflected in the death count. Greater social distancing, lower rates of traffic accidents and of deaths due to alcohol abuse as well as \u2018collateral damage\u2019 will all affect the death count.",
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"text": "Countries differ in how they define the week. The mostly widely accepted international definition starts the week on Monday and ends on Sunday. However, of the countries we compare, England, Wales and Northern Ireland start the week on Saturday and ends it on Friday, while all the others, including Scotland follow international practice. This is a relatively minor issue and largely washes out when cumulating excess deaths over multiple weeks, e.g. eleven weeks.",
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"text": "Differences in the age distribution between countries would be irrelevant if mortality risk increased in the same proportion for all. This can never be the case because children have a far lower mortality risk. In countries where children make up a high proportion of the population, the P-scores and excess mortality relative to the total population for the all ages group will be lower.",
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"text": "the hypothesis of a proportionate increase in mortality risk at all adult ages. We cannot be sure to what extent this is due to differences in rates of infection or differences in mortality risk once infected.",
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"text": " The evidence in section 7 for six countries is for a more than proportionate increase for older adults, i.e. the group of older adults (85+) has a higher P-score than the group of younger adults (15-64). Comparing two countries with the same age-specific P-scores, the country with the higher proportion of older adults would then have a higher all-age adult P-score.",
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"text": "Countries also differ in the age-profile of P-scores. One can see this when comparing the ratio of the P-score for the group of working age adults to that of the group of older adults, e.g. those over 65 or over 85. This ratio is less than 1 everywhere, but some countries have far lower P-scores for working-age adults relative to older adults. To see the implications, take a simple example of two countries with the same age-structure of young and old adults. Suppose the P-score is 1 for the old in both countries, but that country A has a P-score of 0.1 for young adults while that for country B is 0.3. The overall P-score for country B will clearly be higher than for country A. However, if country B also has a higher fraction of young adults, that will attenuate the difference in the overall P-scores between the two countries. Thus, differences in age distributions between countries will affect the measured all-age P-scores and this should be recognised when comparing P-scores.",
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"text": "One could envisage an \u2018age-standardised P-score\u2019, adapting the \u2018age-standardized mortality rate\u2019, sometimes used to examine the impact of a pandemic. The latter is a weighted average of the age-specific mortality rates per 100 000 persons, where the weights are the proportions of persons in the corresponding age groups of a standard population. The WHO explains the rationale: \u201cTwo populations with the same age-specific mortality rates for a particular cause of death will have different overall death rates if the age distributions of their populations are different. Age-standardized mortality rates adjust for differences in the age distribution of the population by applying the observed age-specific mortality rates for each population to a standard population.\u201d",
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"text": " A theoretical population, the European Standard Population (ESP), is widely used in Europe to compute age-standardised death rates. This has a particular distribution by age, averaging data from across Europe. The current version from Eurostat was introduced in 2013. The ONS in the UK has also used age-standardised death rates to compare mortality risk from Covid-19 between the UK regions or between locations with different levels of economic and social deprivation.",
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"text": "However, the \u2018age-standardized mortality rate\u2019 unfortunately conflates variations in normal mortality risk with variations in risk of death during a pandemic. Thus, if the age-standardised mortality rate in 2020 is higher in region A than in region B, this does not necessarily indicate that the Covid-19 mortality risk is higher in A. It may be that normal mortality risk, e.g. based on the average of the previous 5 years, is higher in region A than in B. Age-standardisation removes that part of the difference due to differing ",
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"text": "of the two populations; but it does not remove from normal mortality risk the socio-economic differences, and differences in the incidence of obesity or smoking and in health provision.",
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"text": "An \u2018age-standardised P-score\u2019 would give a better grasp of the increased mortality risk due to Covid-19 than the \u2018age-standardized mortality rate\u2019. The P-scores for each age group could be computed and the weighted average taken using the age structure of the reference population, rather than of the region or country being considered. It is a better concept because it compares the age-standardised mortality rates during the pandemic period with those normally expected. This type of P-score would provide a provisional answer to the question: \u2018how different would the overall mortality rate have been with a different age structure of the population?\u2019",
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"text": "ways of standardising aggregate P-scores (or mortality per 100,000 of population) to remove part of the source of between-region or between-country variation. For example, one could standardise by proportions of the population resident in towns and cities classified by common size categories.",
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"text": "The simple aggregate P-score (which weights the age-specific P-scores by the fraction of the population in each age group) and these various standardised aggregate P-scores (which weight the age-specific P-scores by the fraction of the population in each age group in a hypothetical population) have intuitive appeal and can be informatively compared across countries. However, one has to be aware of the limitation of any single measure of comparability between countries. Subsumed within the aggregates are implicit value judgements. For example, crucially in the case of a pandemic, there is an implicit assumption that the toll of an older life lost is the same as that of a younger life. However, when a younger life is lost, many more years of life expectancy are lost, and one might want to attach a larger weight to deaths of the young, see section 3. An important argument of the lockdown sceptics is an extreme version of this last point: \u201cthe virus is mainly killing off those that were on their way out anyway\u201d, see Kelly (2020). This article quotes a major downward revision of his estimates by British statistician, David Spiegelhalter, who initially suggested that a large number of those dying of Covid-19 would have died in the coming year in any case, but now suggests about 5-15 percent but less than a quarter.",
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"text": " On the 11",
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"text": " June, cancer specialist Karol Sikora stated for the Telegraph that at least half of those dying of Covid-19 would have died anyway by the end of the Summer of 2020. To try to get a clear position on the issue, Tim Harford (who should be credited for his contribution to the public understanding of data, probability and risk), invited actuary Stuart McDonald",
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"text": " to comment in the BBC programme \u201cMore or Less\u201d.",
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"text": " McDonald disagreed with the assertion that a majority would have died in the next 3 months as it was neither supported by the data nor his own research. While it is true that three-quarters of the excess deaths were of people aged 75 and above, and that the majority had one or more pre-existing medical conditions (co-morbidities), in practice, life expectancy is quite high. For example, at the age of 80, life expectancy is 9 years for males and 10 years for females. Co-morbidities add little to this, in his opinion, since four-fifths of this cohort has two or more co-morbidities, and 90 percent have one or more (there is of course variation around the average). He stated that it was hard to find examples of less than two years\u2019 life expectancy. From detailed data in the insurance industry, he suggested that an obese male smoker aged 80, and even with heart or pulmonary disorders, would still have a life expectancy of at least 5 years. This suggests that the pandemic had a huge impact not just on the death count but on life-years lost, properly measured.",
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"text": "Granular data, disaggregating by region, age and gender, as beginning to be provided by Eurostat (see Table 1), allows the observer to apply their own value judgements. These data, combined with medical information at the country level, would be a crucial input in estimates of life-years lost, alongside counts of excess mortality. Granular data are more informative for evaluating the effectiveness of the policy response and for enhancing scientific understanding to inform policies on ending lock-downs and reducing the risk of a second wave of infections.",
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"text": "6.\u00a0 What can we learn from a comparison of the P-scores from the \u2018all ages\u2019 data",
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"text": "Cumulation of the P-scores over time is required to get a comprehensive summary measure of the impact of the pandemic. Looking at comparisons over a single week or two, for example, is insufficiently reliable as there is much variation over individual weeks. Different observers choose different periods to define the beginning and end of the pandemic, for instance beginning with the day when the first Covid-19 deaths or first 50 such deaths were registered. In contrast, we frame our comparisons using the same length of period for each country that we are comparing. We use 11 weeks, which is a comprehensive period to measure the extent of the first wave of the pandemic in European countries (not long enough for the US). The actual weeks chosen differ by country: the timing matches the P-scores. Cumulating the P-scores for \u2018all ages\u2019 data shows, see Figure 3, that England is slightly ahead of Spain, but that they are \u2018neck and neck\u2019. There is also little difference between the two types of P-scores (ordinary and variant) in terms of ranking. Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and France follow Spain, while within the UK, Scotland, Wales and N. Ireland follow England.",
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"text": "One caveat is that the English data are from registration data and not occurrence data (see section 4.2). Therefore, the timing of the England peak cannot be compared with the timing of the peak for the other European countries which use occurrence data, since registration of death follows after occurrence of death, with a lag.",
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"text": "Examining the detailed P-scores by week for England and the rest of the UK, and the other European countries, it is clear that the peak incidence in Spain is more severe, but more protracted at high levels of deaths in England (Figures 4a and 4b). The same comparison applies to Belgium and Italy, with the latter more protracted. The incidence is quite a bit lower in N. Ireland, which follows Wales and Scotland, behind the England.",
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"text": "The detailed numbers behind the pictures are contained in Table 2. The Z-scores from EuroMOMO are also presented. Since Z-scores are based on occurrence data they provide a more comparable picture for England with the other European countries of the timing of the peak week.",
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"text": "7.\u00a0 Excess mortality for other age groups: 15-64 and 85+",
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"text": "Here, we focus on two age groups, those aged 15-64, containing most of the working age population, and the elderly, those aged 85 or more, many of whom will have been residents in care homes. The evidence here confirms the point made in section 5, that the percentage increase in mortality risk due to the pandemic, measured by the P-score, was higher for older ages. As in section 6, we present the cumulated P-scores over time to get a comprehensive summary measure of the impact of the pandemic for the two age groups. We use the same length of period, 11 weeks, for each country, sufficient to measure the extent of the first wave of the pandemic, though the actual weeks chosen will differ by country as before (see Table 2). What differs from section 6 is that for reasons of data access, \u2018England and Wales\u2019 as an entity are examined here, rather than England alone and other regions of the UK. Cumulating the P-scores for both age groups in Figure 5, shows that in all countries, P-scores are lower for the 15-64 age group than for the 85+ age group. \u2018England and Wales\u2019 lies slightly below Spain for the 85+ age group but is well above it for the working age group of 15-64. In ranking, Belgium, Italy, France and the Netherlands follow Spain and \u2018England and Wales\u2019 for the older age group. But Belgium, France and the Netherlands seem to have sustained far lower deaths than Spain and Italy, and especially \u2018England and Wales\u2019, amongst the working age population group.",
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"text": "It is unclear to what extent these striking differences are due to differences in rates of infection or differences in mortality risk once infected. Over the 11 pandemic weeks, the cumulative P-score for the 15-64 age group in France was negative, though in the middle of the period there were some weeks when it was positive, see Figure 6. This suggests that social distancing and related measures in France may have reduced deaths from other causes for the working age population, which actually saved lives over the first-wave pandemic period. The Netherlands and Belgium also have remarkably low cumulative P-scores for the 15-64 age group and a number of weeks with negative P-scores.",
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"text": "The increase in expected years of life lost, is another measure of the pandemic\u2019s impact (section 3). Average life expectancy in the 15-64 age group is obviously substantially higher than the average for the 85+ age group, so many more expected years of life are lost in each excess death among the younger group than among the older. From the higher incidence of deaths among the working age population in England (which dominates the \u2018England and Wales\u2019 figures), it is obvious that England is easily the worst in Europe in terms of expected years of lives lost.",
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"text": "Turning to the timing of the pandemic\u2019s incidence, the \u2018England and Wales\u2019 data are from registration data and not occurrence data (see section 4.2). Since registration of death follows after occurrence of death, with a lag, the timing of the England and Wales\u2019 peak occurs around one week after its occurrence data, which in turn is later than the peak in most European countries. The timing of the peak week is mostly the same for the two age groups. It is led by Italy in week 13, followed by Spain and France in week 14, the Netherlands in weeks 14-15, Belgium in week 15 and England and Wales in weeks 16-17 (but week 15 according to the occurrence data in section 4.2).",
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"text": "Turning to the detail in Figure 6, the peak incidences for the 85+ age group in Spain and in Belgium are more severe, but for \u2018England and Wales\u2019 the pattern is more protracted at a high level of deaths. The same comparison applies to France and the Netherlands versus Italy, with the last more protracted. Italy initially dominated the headlines for Covid-19-related deaths but ranked fourth for peak excess mortality figures for the over-85s, below Spain, \u2018England and Wales\u2019 and Belgium.",
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"text": "Most disturbing, as noted above, is the comparative story for the 15-64 age-group, where England\u2019s relative record in excess mortality in the Covid-19 era is strikingly higher than in the European countries. The 15-64 age-group includes the mass of the working age population. For this age group, the weekly pattern is rather different than for the over-85s, with \u2018England and Wales\u2019 displaying both a high peak incidence and protracted high level of deaths, followed by Spain and then Italy. Figure 6 shows that not only is England distinctive in the rate of excess mortality in the peak week for the working age group, but the same is true in comparisons of the two weeks before the peak and the subsequent week.",
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"text": "The EuroMOMO graphic visualisations by finer age categories can offer further clues, comparing the 15-44 and 45-64 age groups. Section 3 suggested that comparisons of Z-scores for comparably populous countries and those with larger populations yields reasonable approximations in ranking. England and Spain were the only countries with significant excess mortality in the 15-44 age group according to Z-scores, with England far ahead of Spain. Comparisons of Z-scores with less populous states tend to understate excess mortality in the latter, but evidence from the large countries France and Italy suggest that England is a European outlier. While Z-score comparisons with Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland understate their excess mortality, the differences compared with England are so large that the conclusion that England was exceptional cannot be avoided. For the 45-64 age group, there is evidence of significant levels of excess mortality, at least in the peak weeks of the pandemic, for all the countries in our comparison group of countries with the exception of Northern Ireland. The Z-score evidence is consistent with the patterns in Figure 6 for the 15-64 age group, even if the Z-scores for the smaller countries, Belgium and the Netherlands slightly understate their relative excess mortality. While the Z-scores also understate excess mortality for the 45-64 age group in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the figures for England are so much higher, that its outlier status is confirmed for this age group as well as the 15-44 age group.",
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"text": "These country differences call for further analysis, especially by age and by regional differences within countries (contrasting, for example, regions with large urban centres and those without). It would be interesting to know to what extent working age excess mortality in London dominated the data for England. It is also possible that cramped housing conditions in London, especially for poorly paid workers, accounts for some of the exceptionalism of the data for England. Regional and country differences by occupational categories should also be illuminating. Aron and Muellbauer (2020b) drew attention to evidence for England and Wales of major occupational differences in the incidence of deaths attributed to Covid-19 and in age-standardised death rates. Of the countries in our comparison group, England and Wales (and Scotland) have the highest ratios of prison population to total population, followed by Spain.",
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"text": " Further analysis is needed of excess mortality in the prison population as it is possible that failures to protect inmates from infection in countries with high infection rates could help explain some of the country differences of excess mortality for those of working age.",
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"text": "7.1 Toward comparable international statistics on excess deaths amongst care home residents",
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"text": "One of the stark differences between countries is how well protected were residents in the care homes. The main elements of what happened in care homes in the UK, France, Italy and in Spain is, by now, well-known. Care home staff had inadequate personal protective equipment (PPE) and inadequate access to Covid-19-tests and residents were not well-shielded from potential infection from visitors and staff. Yet, many elderly patients with the Covid-19 infection were released from hospitals to the care homes to reduce the pressure on hospitals from the volume of new cases, and therefore spread the infection to other residents. It is important to explore comparisons between countries of their excess deaths in care homes, for example at the least, the percentage of cumulative Covid-19 deaths that occurred in care homes. The clues in the rate of excess deaths for the 85+ age group, which show the largest increase in Spain, are consistent with newspaper reports of the disaster that befell many care homes in Spain.",
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"text": "We were not able to find comparable data at this stage for excess deaths of those normally resident in care homes across the European countries. However, considerable strides have been made in improving international comparability through the pioneering work of the International Long-Term Care Policy Network, e.g. Comas-Herrera et al. (2020). For international comparability, counts of deaths of those resident in care homes, plus those ",
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"text": "resident in care homes but dying elsewhere (e.g. in hospital), would have to be regularly published. Few if any countries currently do this. To compute the percentage of excess deaths in care homes or for the comprehensive definition which includes deaths of care home residents outside the care homes, requires data for the previous five years to be able to estimate \u2018normal\u2019 deaths.",
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"text": " Another issue for international comparability concerns differences in definitions of what constitutes a care home. A focus on those over 65 or 75 years of age to exclude some of the other groups, such as refugees, sometimes included in the care home definition, could help international comparability.",
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"text": "It is interesting that England and Wales have some of the most comprehensive data on mortality in care homes internationally, see Comas-Herrera et al. (2020). They cite ONS data showing that from early March to 12 June 2020, excess deaths in care homes in England and Wales numbered 26,745, where total excess deaths for England and Wales were 59,138. Thus, about 45 percent of total excess deaths took place in care homes. The ONS have not produced data on excess deaths among those normally resident in care homes, however, clearly a higher percentage as some may have died elsewhere. We would like to know what fraction of excess deaths were of care home residents (within the home or out of it, say in hospital). The Care Quality Commission (CQC) estimates that 84 percent of total care home residents\u2019 deaths took place in care homes in the same period. But this includes normal deaths that would have occurred in the absence of the pandemic, as well as the deaths induced by the pandemic (Covid-19 attributed deaths, mis-measured, unattributed Covid-19 deaths and those caused indirectly by Covid-19, through being untreated, for example). To correct the estimate of 84 percent for normal deaths included in it, and to include deaths of care home residents outside the homes, we consider CQC data on Covid-19-attributed deaths as follows. For the period from early March until the 1 May, the CQC estimate that 72 percent of Covid-19-attributed deaths of care home residents occurred in care homes. They give figures for England alone, from 2 May to 12 June, of and 77 percent. Scaling up the above figure of 45 percent of total excess deaths that took place ",
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"text": " care homes for England and Wales, by the 84 percent figure, i.e. 45.2/0.84, would give an estimate of 54 percent for the percentage of all excess mortality accounted for by care home residents in England and Wales (whether inside or out of the care home at time of death). This would almost certainly be an underestimate, since the 84 percent is an over-estimate, but the 54 percent estimate gives a lower bound.",
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"text": "To potentially correct the estimate of 84 percent for the normal deaths included in it, and to include deaths of care home residents outside the homes, we consider the specific CQC data on Covid-19-attributed deaths as follows. For the period from early March until the 1 May, the CQC estimate that 72 percent of Covid-19-attributed deaths of care home residents in England and Wales occurred",
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"text": " care homes. Their equivalent figure for England alone, for the later period of 2 May to 12 June, is 77 percent. However, if the CQC estimate of 77 percent better represented the fraction of excess deaths of care home residents that took place in care homes than the 84 percent figure used above, then 58 percent (i.e. 45.2/0.77), would be the estimate of the fraction of all excess deaths accounted for by residents of care homes (whether inside or out of the care home at time of death).",
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"text": "Although Comas-Herrera et al. (2020) examine data sources for 27 countries outside the UK, the only other two countries found with data on excess deaths in care homes are Belgium and France. In Belgium the attribution of deaths to Covid-19 is so widely-defined that the count of Covid-19 attributed deaths actually exceeds the count of excess deaths, see Figure 1 above. For Belgium, Comas-Herrera et al. (2020) report that care home residents accounted for 64 percent of all deaths linked to Covid-19. This suggests that the percentage of excess deaths accounted for by care home residents in Belgium is not far from the 64 percent figure. They report for France that care home residents accounted for 49 percent of Covid-19 deaths. However, since the count of Covid-19 deaths understates excess deaths in France, see Figure 1, it seems likely that a higher percentage of excess deaths occurred among care home residents. For Canada, estimates suggest 81 percent of Covid-19 deaths were among residents in long-term care, but comparable estimates for excess deaths are not available.",
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"text": "We can obtain a little more information for the UK by examining data in Table 4 for the four nations comparing the total excess death count in each with information on the location of Covid-19 attributed deaths. The period covered is weeks 13-23 of the pandemic (for dates, see Table 2). For the UK as a whole, 80 percent of excess deaths have been attributed to Covid-19, though for Wales the percentage was far higher.",
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"text": " For the UK nearly half of excess deaths attributed to Covid-19 occurred in hospital and one quarter in care homes, though many of the hospital deaths were of patients who were resident in care homes. The remaining 20 percent may also be related to Covid-19, as unrecorded or mis-recorded deaths, and those indirectly affected by Covid-19 through other health conditions, such as heart conditions and cancer, being left untreated due to implied capacity constraints in the health service.",
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"text": "The percentage of excess deaths that took place in care homes from Covid-19 in England, at about a quarter, matches the overall UK figure, but in Scotland and N. Ireland this was sharply higher at 39 and 35 percent, respectively, and in Wales about 30 percent. Concerning the number of Covid-19 deaths, 30 percent of these occurred in care homes in England and in Wales, with 47 percent in Scotland and 43 percent in Northern Ireland. These percentages of Covid-19 deaths are an underestimate of those normally resident in care homes, because some died in hospital. Hopefully, the compilation of those data will be undertaken by the ONS and the regional health authorities, so that the scale of excess deaths in care homes and its regional variation is properly appreciated.",
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"text": "Figure 5: Cumulative P-scores of excess mortality for poor performers by two age groups",
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"text": "Figure 6: Recent weeks of P-scores for poor performers showing peak weeks of excess mortality by age-group",
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"text": "Figure 7: Total COVID deaths as a share of excess deaths for the UK (\u2018all ages\u2019): cumulated over pandemic weeks.",
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"text": "8.\u00a0 International/national statistical agencies should publish improved measures of excess mortality",
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"text": "Even if we deem the P-scores and the population-deflated statistics to be comparable across countries, underlying measurement issues of the death count strongly affect the comparability across countries. These definitional differences need to be highlighted and made transparent across country data providers and international organisations reporting excess mortality statistics. The transparent reportage of the Human Mortality Database (HMD) is exemplary in this regard.",
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"text": "The impact of the pandemic on deaths has been very strongly related to age and co-morbidity. The proportions of people with one, two or more co-morbidities is highly related to age. The discussion in the previous section highlighted striking differences between countries in age-related P-scores. Publication of P-scores for different age groups in a standard format should therefore be a high priority for international comparability, and HMD is a good source for such data. The evidence is that Covid-19 death rates are substantially higher for men than for women, and how this gender issue varies across countries and over time remains to be explored.",
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"text": "The international NUTS classification of regions provides another comparable frame for international comparisons. As regions differ in their urban/rural structure, comparing regional data can give important insights into risk factors for death rates. Moreover, as the incidence of the pandemic differs in timing and intensity, regional comparisons can throw light on the dynamics of the spread of infections. Eurostat has embarked on a major expansion of regional mortality data according to the NUTS classification, which should greatly aid research.",
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"text": "Another important source of variation across countries has been in the incidence of Covid-19 deaths in care homes. Countries undoubtedly differ in the proportion of older citizens resident in care homes. It would be highly desirable to develop an international standard frame to define what constitutes a care home, perhaps by the size-distribution of the number of residents. Then, comparisons of excess mortality in care homes would be possible. At present, there are limited internationally comparable data on deaths attributed to Covid-19 that occurred in care homes, see Table 4 for a UK comparison, but almost none on excess deaths of those in care homes or normally resident there.",
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"text": "Within countries such as the UK, there have now been several studies comparing the incidence of deaths attributed to Covid-19 by local measures of economic deprivation, occupation and ethnicity. It would highly desirable for parallel studies of excess deaths to be carried out. International comparability is harder in these dimensions given difficulties in standardising categories in measures of deprivation, occupational classification (sometimes not recorded on death certificates, but recoverable from census records) and missing data for some countries on the sensitive issue of ethnicity.",
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"text": "Considerable benefits can be reaped from tabulation, cross-tabulation and correlations, trying to control for common features like density by region, in proposing hypotheses. It is important to allow modellers ready access to transparent, comparable international data to a granular level to be combined with other granular data already available (e.g. on inequality) to test such hypotheses in models. Forecasting P-scores from epidemiological models for different scenarios on ending lockdown measures should be an important aid to formulating policy.",
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"text": " Granular data by location within and between countries must be produced and made accessible for research and forecasting. An example using granular Italian death registry data is Ciminelli and Garcia-Mandic\u00f3 (2020).",
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"text": " Belloc et al. (2020) caution against drawing simplistic conclusions from cross-country correlations; they too stress the need for granular, comparable data.",
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"text": "National statistical offices should publish weekly P-scores of excess mortalities for the constituent countries, regions and broad social groupings such as care home residents, to help understand the pandemic and inform policy.",
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"text": " We also argue that EuroMOMO should be mandated to produce P-scores as well as Z-scores to aid comparability across countries and be far more transparent on sources and methods EuroMOMO\u2019s five-year graphs of Z-scores visualise the natural weekly variability, helping to interpret the confidence intervals. Similar practice should be followed for published P-scores, including at national statistical agencies.",
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"text": "To end on a cautionary note, excess mortality should also be examined in a longer-term perspective. Spiegelhalter (2020) argues the main impact of Covid-19 may be to shift forward the date of death by a few months for those close to death because of underlying poor health. However, as discussed in section 6, expert actuaries strongly dispute his claim. Moreover, total years of life lost, see section 3, is an alternative indicator of the pandemic\u2019s social toll. Even in the extreme and improbable case envisaged by Spiegelhalter, total years of life lost could still show a large upturn. As we saw in section 6, record excess mortality of those of working age in England, making this a particularly telling issue in comparing with other European countries.",
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"text": "If national statistical agencies regularly published monthly, 3-month, 6-month and 12-month moving averages, and weekly P-scores, this would greatly assist our ability to interpret the pandemic data.",
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"text": " Provision of timely, regularly updated and comparable granular data on excess mortality by national and international statistical agencies should be high on the agenda. It is not enough to leave this to hard-working journalists.",
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"text": "We take responsibility for interpretations of data and analysis but are grateful for advice on data and other matters to Jose Manuel Aburto (Dept of Sociology, Oxford University), Ainhoa Alustiza Galarza (HMD), Nick Andrews (Public Health England), Gabriele Ciminelli (Asia school of Business), Adelina Comas-Herrera (Care Policy and Evaluation Centre, Department of Health Policy, London School of Economics and Political Science), Laurie Davies (Mathematics Department, University Duisburg-Essen), Francesca De\u2019 Donato (",
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"url": "https://www.eurosurveillance.org/search?option1=pub_affiliation&value1=Department+of+Epidemiology%2C+Lazio+Regional+Health+Service%2C+ASL+Roma+1%2C+Rome%2C+Italy&option912=resultCategory&value912=ResearchPublicationContent",
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"text": "Department of Epidemiology, Lazio Regional Health Service, Rome, Italy",
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"text": "), Mark O'Doherty (Public Health Agency, Northern Ireland), Faisal Islam (Economics Editor, BBC), Dmitri Jdanov (HMD), Gareth John (NHS Wales Informatics Service), Ridhi Kashyap (Nuffield College), Amparo Larrauri (Departamento de Enfermedades Transmisibles, Centro Nacional de Epidemiolog\u00eda, CIBER\u00a0 Epidemiolog\u00eda y Salud P\u00fablica, Spain), Diogo Marques (Public Health Scotland), Bent Nielsen (Nuffield College), Justine Pooley (ONS), Max Roser (Our World in Data, Oxford University), Charles Tallack (Health Foundation), and Lasse Skafte Vestergaard (Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences and Statens Serum Institut, University of Copenhagen.)",
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"text": "Let x(it) be the weekly death count in country i in week t. It appears that EuroMOMO define",
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"text": "where \u03bc(it) is the predicted value from a model based on historical data up to 5 years ago for seasons of the year less affected by flu and heat waves, and incorporates some trends and seasonals, and where sigma reflects the standard deviation of residuals, but is actually computed from a Poisson process modified for longer tails. Each country in the network estimates its own model within a broad methodology and supplies the hub with its weekly estimates.",
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"text": "The Poisson assumption, even modified for longer tails, is nowhere near correct for describing the stochastic process generating x(it). The constant mean and independence over time assumptions must be wrong, as explained in Box 2 of the paper, which shows that it is implausible to assume that there are zero systematic mean shifts at all times in the Spring and Autumn. When EuroMOMO measure the standard deviation for \u2018normal\u2019 seasons, variation in these systematic factors as well as random noise will be present.",
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"text": "Turning to comparisons between regions within a country, it is obvious that the smaller the population of a region, and in particular the smaller the number of normal deaths, the noisier will be the weekly death count relative to the normal expected value. In other words, the ratio: \u00a0",
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"text": "As our paper points out, the rankings of rates of excess deaths in the peak week for the most affected European countries according to Z are quite similar to those from P, even for countries such as Belgium and the Netherlands, which have smaller populations and hence smaller counts of normal deaths than the others. For nations or regions with much smaller counts of normal deaths, the rankings are different as the relative noisiness of weekly death counts compared to normal levels is higher. There is no simple adjustment to convert published Z-scores to P-scores without access to data on normal and actual deaths. In particular, it would be quite wrong to adjust the published Z-scores by the square root of population size of each country to make them more comparable. Comparability is best achieved using the P-scores.",
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"text": "ACN. 2020a. \u201c",
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"url": "https://www.catalannews.com/society-science/item/coronavirus-crisis-shines-spotlight-on-elderly-care-homes",
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"text": "Coronavirus crisis shines spotlight on elderly care homes",
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"text": ".\u201d Catalan News, Barcelona, 1 April 2020.",
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1 | 2024-02-16 09:18:51 | 2020-06-29 13:12:00 | 2024-02-16 20:02:10 | listed | ALBJ4Lt7KHNLwAo8Vz51W3Bd4jtmnLp3V2Unh8y6eFb3NOL2JzjSCJIk-Q-EYZtiy2hPC1EMofrYDMVDC0NbJw | <Callout title=""/> <Callout title=""/> ### Explore our continuously updated presentation of data on excess mortality https://ourworldindata.org/excess-mortality-covid --- New research publications on excess mortality by Janine Aron and John Muellbauer: ### The US excess mortality rate from COVID-19 is substantially worse than Europe’s In this follow-up article for VoxEU the two researchers find that Europe’s cumulative excess mortality rate from March to July is 28% lower than the US rate. https://voxeu.org/article/us-excess-mortality-rate-covid-19-substantially-worse-europe-s ### Transatlantic excess mortality comparisons in the pandemic In this new follow-up article the two researchers compare the excess mortality in Europe and the US. https://owid.cloud/app/uploads/2020/08/Aron-and-Muellbauer-Transatlantic-excess-mortality-comparison.pdf # 1. Why is it important to examine excess mortality data? Excess mortality is a count of deaths from all causes relative to what would normally have been expected. In a pandemic, deaths rise sharply, but causes are often inaccurately recorded, particularly when reliable tests are not widely available. The [death count](http://ourworldindata.org/covid-deaths) attributed to Covid-19 may thus be significantly undercounted. Excess mortality data overcome two problems in reporting Covid-19-related deaths. Miscounting from misdiagnosis or under-reporting of Covid-19-related deaths is avoided. Excess mortality data include ‘collateral damage’ from other health conditions, left untreated if the health system is overwhelmed by Covid-19 cases, or by deliberate actions that prioritise patients with Covid-19 over those with other symptoms. In a pandemic, measures taken by governments and by individuals also influence death rates. For example, deaths from traffic accidents may decline but suicide rates may rise. Excess mortality captures the net outcome of all these factors. Figure 1 illustrates how the degree of Covid-19 recording relative to excess deaths has varied across so… | A pandemic primer on excess mortality statistics and their comparability across countries | |
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1 | 2023-09-01 15:37:44 | 2020-10-23 10:30:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LtdMLq3wp0gKMfJk474eJif_Kaf4elzt_Xauhryu3jKb0hydGr886h-vkzzyFLWdnJfYrSXZ4Mu004PTg | Global aviation – both passenger flights and freight – emits around one billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) each year. This was equivalent to around 2.4% of CO2 emissions in 2018. How do global aviation emissions break down? The chart gives the answer. This data is sourced from the 2019 _International Council on Clean Transportation(ICCT)_ report on global aviation.1 Most emissions come from passenger flights – in 2018, they accounted for 81% of aviation’s emissions; the remaining 19% came from freight, the transport of goods. Sixty percent of emissions from_ passenger_ flights come from international travel; the other 40% come from domestic (in-country) flights. When we break passenger flight emissions down by travel distance, we get a (surprisingly) equal three-way split in emissions between short-haul (less than 1,500 kilometers); medium-haul (1,500 to 4,000 km); and long-haul (greater than 4,000 km) journeys. <Image filename="Global-breakdown-of-aviation-emissions.png"/> ## The richest half are responsible for 90% of air travel CO2 emissions The global inequalities in how much people fly become clear when we compare aviation emissions across countries of different income levels. The ICCT split these emissions based on World Bank's four [income groups](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/world-banks-income-groups?year=latest). A further study by Susanne Becek and Paresh Pant (2019) compared the contribution of each income group to global air travel emissions versus its share of world population.2 This comparison is shown in the visualization. The ‘richest’ half of the world (high and upper-middle income countries) were responsible for 90% of air travel emissions.3 Looking at specific income groups: * Only 16% of the world population live in high-income countries yet the planes that take off in those countries account for almost two-thirds (62%) of passenger emissions; * Upper-middle income countries are home to 35% of the world population, and contribute 28% of emissions; * Lower-middle income co… | Global inequalities in CO₂ emissions from aviation | |
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"text": "The original map was published in Simon I Hay, Carlos A Guerra, Andrew J Tatem, Abdisalan M Noor, and Robert W Snow (2004) \u2013 The global distribution and population at risk of malaria: past, present, and future. In The Lancet Infectious Diseases 2004 June; 4(6): 327\u2013336. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(04)01043-6. ",
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"text": " I have digitized the Figure 1 using image tracing in Adobe Illustrator. The historical mapping of the prevalence of malaria is based on the pioneering work of Lysenko in the 1960s: Lysenko AJ, Semashko IN. Geography of malaria (1968) \u2013 A medico-geographic profile of an ancient disease. In: Lebedew AW, editor. Itogi Nauki: Medicinskaja Geografija. Academy of Sciences, USSR; Moscow: 1968. pp. 25\u2013146. Lysenko AJ, Beljaev AE (1969) \u2013 An analysis of the geographical distribution of Plasmodium ovale. Bull World Health Organization; 40:383\u201394.",
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"text": "\u2019. Other famous victims \u2013 although it is not always possible to diagnose the disease of historical figures \u2013 were German painter Albrecht D\u00fcrer, who contracted the disease in the Netherlands, and several popes, who died of the disease as malaria was very prevalent in Italy until recently.",
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1 | 2023-11-29 18:12:17 | 2019-04-25 11:42:55 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LsWN1kUk-YCBgyGFiMRPh_7H4iKutXNN-MHSs2abFs2D_OutZrb9NNr7QIfn01VUym5gfONJ-kYCsMHVQ | The animal that kills most people every year isn’t the one that first comes to mind. When it comes to killing humans, no other animal comes close: Mosquitoes kill almost half a million people per year. One death every minute. Mosquitoes are so very dangerous to us because they carry lethal diseases. The half a million annual deaths are caused by Dengue, Japanese encephalitis, Yellow fever, some smaller diseases and the very worst of them: Malaria.1 Malaria is a disease that is transmitted from person to person by infected mosquitoes. The bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito transmits a parasite that enters the victim’s blood system and travels into the person’s liver where the parasite reproduces. There the parasite causes a high fever that involves shaking chills and pain. In the worst cases malaria leads to coma and death. # From half the world to a quarter of the world within one century Malaria [left its mark](https://ourworldindata.org/malaria#the-history-of-malaria) on our history, our bodies, drinks, and for thousands of years the deaths of people in all corners of the world. But in the last few generations, humanity gained ground in this long-lasting battle against the disease. The map shows in which regions of the world malaria is prevalent today (in purple) and where it was prevalent in the past. Just a few generations ago malaria was common in many more places around the world than it is today. Over the course of the 20th century the disease was eliminated in many populous regions of the world, saving the lives of millions. What the map makes clear is that malaria is not a tropical disease, but a disease that was eliminated everywhere except for the tropics. Historically malaria was prevalent in Europe and North America – poet Friedrich Schiller contracted the disease in Mannheim, Oliver Cromwell in Ireland, and Abraham Lincoln in Illinois.2 Since then the disease has been eliminated not only there, but also in East Asia and Australia and in many parts in the Caribbean, South America, and Afri… | Malaria was common across half the world – since then it has been eliminated in many regions | |
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"type": "topic-page",
"title": "Cardiovascular Diseases",
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"excerpt": "Cardiovascular diseases are the most common cause of death worldwide. Explore global data on cardiovascular diseases, their treatments, risk factors, and trends over time.",
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"text": "Introduction",
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"atom-excerpt": "Explore global data on cardiovascular diseases, their treatments, risk factors, and trends over time.",
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1 | 2023-10-31 12:18:56 | 2023-12-14 12:56:52 | 2023-12-28 16:31:12 | listed | ALBJ4LvrhdaKRsJaQl6iv3pzcB4sU0AWNT9iqhWHQDvfI3ZjvLo5TyLUXFiDHeLLfO8RC435cLKWu5jpx5ofSg | Cardiovascular diseases cover all diseases of the heart and blood vessels – including heart attacks and strokes, atherosclerosis, ischemic heart disease, hypertensive diseases, cardiomyopathy, and others. These diseases tend to develop gradually with age, especially when people have risk factors like high blood pressure, smoking, alcohol use, poor diet, and air pollution. Together, cardiovascular diseases are the most common [cause of death](https://ourworldindata.org/causes-of-death) globally. In 2000, around 14 million people died from cardiovascular diseases globally, while in 2019, close to 18 million died. The rising death toll is largely due to a growing and aging global population. Death _rates_ from cardiovascular diseases have actually fallen in many countries – as our ability to prevent and treat them has improved. Large declines in [smoking](https://ourworldindata.org/smoking); improvements in screening, diagnosis, and monitoring; and advances in medical treatments, public health initiatives, emergency care, and surgical procedures, have all helped to reduce the impact of cardiovascular diseases on people’s lives. Yet large disparities remain globally. The impact of cardiovascular diseases can be reduced much further with greater understanding and public health efforts. On this page, you will find global data on cardiovascular diseases, their risk factors and treatments, and their trends over time. ## Key Insights on Cardiovascular Diseases ### Cardiovascular diseases are the most common cause of death worldwide This chart shows what people died from globally in 2019. Each box represents a cause of death, and the size of each box is proportional to the number of deaths it caused. As you can see, heart diseases and other cardiovascular diseases are the most common causes of death, responsible for a third of all deaths globally, a total of around 18 million. Cardiovascular diseases are part of a larger group of diseases called non-communicable diseases, which are shown in blue in the visualizat… | Cardiovascular Diseases | |
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"text": "The huge majority of the world today is very poor. About 85% of the world live on less than $30 per day and around 61% live on less than $10 per day.",
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"text": "The reason I wrote this text is that I believe some commentators on global poverty are not clear about the reality that very substantial growth is needed if people in poor countries should have a chance to leave poverty behind. I believe that if we do not express very clearly that economic growth is needed, we are damaging the prospects of the poorest people in the world to leave poverty behind.",
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"text": "Higher incomes are not an end in themselves. But to say that income growth only has an instrumental role is not to say that it is of little importance. A person's income does not measure their well-being; it measures whether goods and services they value remain out of reach or not. Because many of these goods and services matter for their wellbeing, income matters too.",
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"text": "One possibility to reduce poverty is to redistribute income within that country so that the income of the poor rises. There are a number of ways this can be done: one way is that the government taxes the incomes of richer people and pays it out to the poor.",
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"text": "You can either start at the individual level and do a survey in which you ask people what their consumption or income is \u2013 this is plotted on the vertical axis in the chart. Households\u2019 consumption is not the same thing as their income \u2013 but they are closely related; this is especially true of poor people who do not have the chance to save much.",
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"text": "I am also in favor of increased spending on aid (if you are skeptical, ",
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"text": " You would need to convince (or force) the richest hundreds of million people in the world to give up large shares of their income and I think only few people would be willing to do that. One concrete data point that makes me skeptical: most rich countries in the world ",
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"text": "If it is hard to find political support for the goal of spending 0.7% of people\u2019s incomes on aid, I very much do not believe that the majority of people who live on more than the average income would agree to give up much larger shares of their income.",
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"text": "There are only two ways to increase the incomes of the poor: lower global inequality or economic growth for the poorest billions of the world. If someone is not in favor of economic growth for the poorer billions in the world, they are left with the option to reduce global inequality. I am in favor of reducing global inequality, but I find it extremely wrong to suggest that the only acceptable way to end global poverty is to reduce global inequality.",
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"text": "Economic growth in today\u2019s rich countries over the last two hundred years is the reason that people in those countries are much less poor than people in the same places in the past or people in poor countries today.",
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"text": "The chart on the top compares estimates of the income distribution in Madagascar (in green) and the UK (in blue) in 2018. The income differences between people in these two countries are extremely large. The current average income in Madagascar today is $1.50 per day.",
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"text": " This means that even the richer half of Madagascar\u2019s population live on incomes between only $2 to $5 per day, much less than even poor people in the UK.",
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"text": "The chart at the bottom shows that back in 1800 the incomes in the UK were similarly low as Madagascar today. Since then the UK economy grew ",
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"text": " and the income distribution moved to the right so that the majority of British people left the poverty of the past behind.",
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"text": "This needs to change if poor countries are to leave poverty behind. People in Madagascar only have a chance to leave poverty behind if their average incomes grow the way they did in the UK.",
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"text": "Understanding how much the size of the economy matters for our own income is important for our own self-understanding and for our judgement of why it is that some people are poor and others are not. A person\u2019s knowledge, skills, and how hard they work all matter for whether they are poor or not \u2013 but all these personal factors together matter much less than the factor that is entirely outside a person\u2019s control: whether the place they happen to be born into has a large, productive economy or not.",
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"text": "Lowering inequality is an important goal, and it can help to reduce poverty, but it can not be the only way in which the world fights global poverty. The poorest people live in places where average incomes are very low, as we have seen in the chart above. I am in favor of lower inequality, but I also believe that anyone who is concerned about global poverty should be in favor of strong economic growth in the economies that are home to the poorest billions in the world.",
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"text": "For me personally, my income is not a major limiting factor to my freedom or well-being, and I am not concerned here with whether rich countries today should make it their goal to grow their economies. But I am concerned about the very low incomes of the majority of the world and believe that those economies that they are part of need to grow very substantially if there should be a chance that the poorest billions can leave poverty behind in the decades to come.",
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"text": " that did not allow those economies to grow and instead impoverished them. The injustice of an extremely unequal world needs to end.\u00a0While some places in the world have left the worst poverty ",
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"type": "article",
"title": "The economies that are home to the poorest billions of people need to grow if we want global poverty to decline substantially",
"authors": [
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"excerpt": "The majority of the world today is poor: 85% of the world live on less than $30 per day. We need economic growth to alleviate global poverty.",
"dateline": "February 22, 2021",
"subtitle": "The majority of the world today is poor: 85% of the world live on less than $30 per day. If we are to alleviate global poverty, we need economic growth.",
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"text": "Note: The World Bank has updated its poverty and inequality data",
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"value": "The World Bank has since updated its methods, and now measures incomes in 2017 international-$. As part of this change, the International Poverty Line used to measure extreme poverty has also been updated: from $1.90 (in 2011 prices) to $2.15 (in 2017 prices)."
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1 | 2023-07-18 09:59:29 | 2021-02-22 20:31:54 | 2024-02-02 18:50:15 | listed | ALBJ4LsO_yaF5CCX8kxViNQyUCxlDE2ZA9kSmPwMyPk2uyaeavlSmDNmnkN_TG5bYbKMEA6fteUG6osb8eZdjQ | The huge majority of the world today is very poor. About 85% of the world live on less than $30 per day and around 61% live on less than $10 per day.1 I believe, for reasons I’ll explain below, that if this should change it will require very substantial economic growth of the economies that are home to the poorest billions of people in the world. The reason I wrote this text is that I believe some commentators on global poverty are not clear about the reality that very substantial growth is needed if people in poor countries should have a chance to leave poverty behind. I believe that if we do not express very clearly that economic growth is needed, we are damaging the prospects of the poorest people in the world to leave poverty behind. I am therefore asking that everyone who finds global poverty unacceptable should be very clear that the majority of people in the world live in poor economies and that massive economic growth is needed to increase their incomes to a decent level. Higher incomes are not an end in themselves. But to say that income growth only has an instrumental role is not to say that it is of little importance. A person's income does not measure their well-being; it measures whether goods and services they value remain out of reach or not. Because many of these goods and services matter for their wellbeing, income matters too. Any person’s income depends on two factors, the _average income_ in the country they live in and the position that particular person has in that country’s _income distribution_. Both aspects can change so that fewer people are poor: * average income can [increase](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gdp-per-capita-maddison-2020?tab=chart&yScale=linear&stackMode=absolute&country=Western%20Europe~East%20Asia~South%20and%20South-East%20Asia~Middle%20East~Eastern%20Europe~Latin%20America~Sub-Sahara%20Africa~USA~GBR~AUS®ion=World) over time; that is called economic growth * and inequality can decline so that the poorest people get closer to the average income in that co… | The economies that are home to the poorest billions of people need to grow if we want global poverty to decline substantially | |
| 1t5b9foM14E-4ib1jCz3ZozaidP7KAgnawPKuJYX1oKo | the-share-of-democracies-has-recently-stagnated-but-remains-near-its-historical-high | data-insight | {
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1 | 2024-05-02 09:09:35 | 2024-05-14 05:45:46 | 2024-05-13 07:57:58 | unlisted | ALBJ4LvPF0UXrE-Fze4oW7-nyunZfBb6xyr-g4lhdd__aONHdbSL4pQ7jXitmGfNf7WlP6ZpfN28gYTf1hqKXw | <Image filename="countries-democracies-autocracies-row-desktop.png"/> Over the last twenty years, the share of countries that are democracies has remained relatively stable. Relying on [data from Varieties of Democracy](https://ourworldindata.org/regimes-of-the-world-data), which we just updated, the chart shows that around half of all countries are democracies. The world remains close to the historical high in the early 2000s and is much more democratic than 50 years ago; only 20% of countries were democracies in the early 1970s. However, the chart shows smaller changes within democratic regimes: the share of _liberal_ democracies, which grant additional individual and minority rights and constrain their governments, has decreased over the last decade. While democracy has remained fairly resilient over the last few decades, this recent stagnation and limited rollback stresses that progress on increasing political rights is neither linear nor guaranteed. [Read more about the recent changes in democracy](https://ourworldindata.org/less-democratic) → | The share of democracies has recently stagnated but remains near its historical high | |
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1 | 2023-05-05 08:18:38 | 2023-06-16 14:10:45 | 2023-12-28 16:31:12 | unlisted | ANeT5PThuDGrnM-PpsgwyuDZ7iftJQSmHXQHjTMBrGgVy3zrStXY_Yc1VEVNpv48wZK7X77maNmG4iSi5kQ9wQ | # keyInfoText * Consumption-based emissions attribute the emissions generated in the production of goods and services according to where they were _consumed_, rather than where they were _produced_. * The data is calculated by adjusting ‘production-based’ emissions (emissions produced domestically) for trade: Consumption-based emissions equals production-based emissions, _minus_ emissions embedded in exports, _plus_ emissions embedded in imports. If a country's consumption-based emissions are higher than its production emissions it is a net importer of carbon dioxide. If its consumption-based emissions are lower, then it is a net exporter. * Per capita emissions represent the emissions of an average person in a country or region – they are total emissions divided by population. * Consumption-based emissions are not available for all countries because not all countries have sufficient, high-quality trade data. But those without complete data are a small fraction (3%) of the global total. * This data measures Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from fossil fuels and industry and does not include emissions from land use change, deforestation, soils, or vegetation. * Emissions from international aviation and shipping are not included in any country or region’s emissions. They are only included in the global total emissions. # descriptionFromSource # faqs ## Are emissions from aviation and shipping included? Emissions from domestic aviation and shipping are included in each country’s total. Emissions from international aviation and shipping are not included in any country or region’s total. This is because there is no international agreement on how these emissions should be allocated: should they, for example, be allocated to the country of origin or destination? In our [related article](https://ourworldindata.org/carbon-footprint-flying) we look at a separate dataset on emissions from aviation. They are, however, included in the global total. You also [find it here](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-co-emiss… | Data page texts – Per capita consumption-based CO₂ emissions | Global Carbon Project | |
| 1szX11tRqr-NDnar2J7gZBQWMCFB4JFj5BEw0RkReFkU | estimating-total-global-paralytic-polio-cases | article | {
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1 | 2024-02-15 08:51:28 | 2022-04-20 09:00:00 | 2024-02-15 08:54:45 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lt0XP8Tum7rKtb9Oa1xRuhc0rrSKN4vwZYdyoifhBQ1rB1pvkS28g508g_q82gtMh-p67IDsXzo4uvvnw | This article was first published in April 2018. It was last updated in May 2022. In this post we explain how we estimate the number of cases of paralytic polio by country and region. To summarize, we apply a method by Tebbens et al. (2010) to the reported cases, using two measures of testing quality. The number of reported cases of paralytic polio can be an underestimate of the number of actual cases for several reasons. People with acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) may not be seen by doctors or healthcare workers and reported as suspected cases of polio. They may not have samples taken, or taken in time, to detect the presence of poliovirus. Or their samples may not be tested for poliovirus and reported. ## Adapted methodology from Tebbens et al. (2010) In their paper, Tebbens et al. (2010) introduced a method to adjust for under-detection.1 Their method uses two indicators: non-polio AFP rate and AFP cases with adequate stool collection. The non-polio AFP rate is the rate at which cases of AFP from non-polio causes are detected and reported. This indicates whether AFP is being detected and reported sufficiently. The metric called 'AFP cases with adequate stool collection' is the share of suspected cases that have testable stool samples taken from them. To test for the poliovirus, two samples need to be taken between 24–48 hours apart, within 14 days of the onset of paralysis.2 Tebbens et al. used these two indicators to derive a 'correction factor'. Then, the number of reported cases was multiplied by this correction factor to estimate the number of actual cases. In their paper, they estimated cases from 1980 to 2009 for countries that received GPEI support. However, here we adapt this method by applying it to all countries that reported data to the WHO from 1980 to 2020. **Up to 1995:** Surveillance data from the WHO was not available, so they applied a correction factor of 7 for all countries that received GPEI support to account for under-detection. **Between 1996 and 2000**: Polio surveillance was ra… | Estimation of the number of paralytic polio cases by region | |
| 1swoRvLSiP8Hk_hqyXTszMSe3WwV2DKbdKF65JX1eSn8 | global-deforestation-peak | article | {
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"text": "This is progress, but it needs to happen much faster. The world is still losing large amounts of primary forests every year. To put these numbers in context: during the 1990s and first decade of the 2000s, an area almost the size of India was deforested.",
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"text": "But we should be cautious here: it\u2019s often not the case that the \u2018positives\u2019 of regrowing one hectare of forest offset the \u2018losses\u2019 of one hectare of deforestation. Cutting down one hectare of rich, tropical rainforest cannot be completely offset by the plantation of forest in a temperate country.",
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"text": "The history of deforestation is a tragic one, in which we not only lost these wild and beautiful landscapes but also the wildlife within them. But, the fact that forest transitions are possible should give us confidence that a positive future is possible. Many countries have not only ended deforestation, but actually achieved substantial reforestation. It will be possible for our generation to achieve the same on the global scale and bring the 10,000 year history of forest loss to an end.",
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"text": "If we want to end deforestation we need to understand where and why it\u2019s happening; where countries are within their transition; and what can be done to accelerate their progress through it. We need to pass the transition point as soon as possible, while minimising the amount of forest we lose along the way.",
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"text": "In this article, in the recent period I have used data from the UN\u2019s Global Forest Resources Assessment (2020). The UN carries out these global forest stocktakes every five years. These forest figures are widely-used in research, policy, and international targets, such as in the ",
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"text": "The UN FAO has a very specific definition of a forest. It\u2019s \u201cland spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 0.5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10%, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ.\u201d",
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"text": "Compare this to the UN Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which uses forest estimates to calculate land use carbon emissions, and for its REDD+ programme, where low-to-middle income countries can receive finance for verified projects that prevent or reduce deforestation. It ",
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"text": "As GFW describes in its definition of \u2018forest loss\u2019: \u201cLoss\u201d indicates the removal or mortality of tree cover and can be due to a variety of factors, including mechanical harvesting, fire, disease, or storm damage. As such, \u201closs\u201d does not equate to deforestation.\u201d",
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"text": "Since GFW uses satellite imagery, its methods continually improve. This makes its ability to detect changes in forest cover even stronger. But it also means that comparisons over time are more difficult. It currently warns against comparing pre-2015 and post-2015 data since there was a significant methodological change at that time. Note that this is also a problem in UN FAO reports, as I\u2019ll soon explain.",
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"text": "This should not affect the overall trends reported in the latest report: the UN FAO should \u2013 as far as is possible \u2013 apply the same methodology to its 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s estimates. However, it does mean we should be cautious about comparing absolute magnitudes across different reports.",
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"text": "This is one challenge in presenting 1980 figures in the main visualization in this article. Later reports have not updated 1980 figures, so we have to rely on estimates from earlier reports. We don\u2019t know whether 1980s rates would also be lower with the UN FAO\u2019s most recent adjustments. If so, this would mean the reductions in net forest loss from the 1980s to 1990s were lower than is shown from available data.",
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1 | 2023-09-19 10:24:02 | 2021-02-19 12:00:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LvVpdPrcbjyp5_0cXDj29znDAbIeMg20Awco-1iEHLjZUjRegFvuVGgQbF5w9Ws0I4eMLA37L9EFngfXw | Since the end of the last great ice age – 10,000 years ago – the world has lost one-third of its forests.1 Two billion hectares of forest – an area twice the size of the United States – has been cleared to grow crops, raise livestock, and use for fuelwood. In a **[previous post](https://ourworldindata.org/deforestation#the-world-has-lost-one-third-of-its-forests-but-an-end-of-deforestation-is-possible)** we looked at this change in global forests over the long-run. What this showed was that although humans have been deforesting the planet for millennia, the rate of forest loss accelerated rapidly in the last few centuries. Half of global forest loss occurred between 8,000BC and 1900; the other half was lost in the last century alone. To understand this more recent loss of forest, let’s zoom in on the last 300 years. The world lost 1.5 billion hectares of forest over that period. That’s an area 1.5-times the size of the United States. In the chart we see the decadal losses and gains in global forest cover. On the horizontal axis we have time, spanning from 1700 to 2020; on the vertical axis we have the decadal change in forest cover. The taller the bar, the larger the change in forest area. This is measured in hectares, which is equivalent to 10,000 m². Forest loss measures the net change in forest cover: the loss in forests due to deforestation plus any expansion of forest through afforestation.2 Unfortunately there is no single source that provides consistent and transparent data on deforestation rates over this period of time. Methodologies change over time, and estimates – especially in earlier periods – are highly uncertain. This means I’ve had to use two separate datasets to show this change over time. As we’ll see, they produce different estimates of deforestation for an overlapping decade – the 1980s – which suggests that these are not directly comparable. I do not recommend combining them into a single series, but the overall trends are still applicable and tell us an important story about deforestat… | Global deforestation peaked in the 1980s. Can we bring it to an end? | |
| 1svZ66NfvVDcuQ6vKgc_C90gkeNGyRyxKVMbIPD31A60 | world-population-growth-past-future | article | {
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1 | 2023-12-02 02:15:04 | 2023-03-18 10:00:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LtB0pjl569ltHLCXAyUNj-f0gm_3mSscZmc0aJS0hJIB0XgsGU3K1bZqj_1pIMD3-wCE08pS14tP6Eo0A | One of the big lessons from the demographic history of countries is that periods of rapid population growth are temporary. For many countries, the [demographic transition](https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth#the-demographic-transition-why-is-rapid-population-increase-a-temporary-phenomenon) has already ended, and as the [global fertility rate has now halved](https://ourworldindata.org/fertility-rate#the-global-fertility-rate-has-halved-in-the-last-50-years) we know that the world as a whole is approaching the end of rapid population growth. This visualization presents an overview of the global demographic transition, based on estimates from the [2022 data release from the UN Population Division](https://population.un.org/wpp/). <Image filename="2019-Revision-–-World-Population-Growth-1700-2100.png" alt=""/> As we explore at the beginning of the [topic page on population growth](https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth), the global population grew only very slowly up to 1700 – only 0.04% per year. In the many millennia up to that point in history [very high mortality of children](https://ourworldindata.org/child-mortality-in-the-past) counteracted high fertility. The world was in the first stage of the demographic transition. Once [health improved and mortality declined](https://ourworldindata.org/child-mortality-global-overview) things changed quickly. Particularly over the course of the 20th century: Over the last 100 years global population more than quadrupled. As we see in the chart, the rise of the global population got steeper and steeper and you have just lived through the steepest increase of that curve. This also means that your existence is a tiny part of the reason why that curve is so steep. The 7-fold increase of the world population over the course of two centuries amplified humanity’s impact on the natural environment. To provide space, food, and resources for a large world population in a way that is sustainable into the distant future is without question one of the l… | Two centuries of rapid global population growth will come to an end | |
| 1suQJtHnrIPA0zawZe1uCeM5rHZPOvUlZKq4fQnj41O0 | smallholder-food-production | article | {
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"excerpt": "Most of the world's farmers are smallholders. They are also often the poorest. How much of the world's food do they produce?",
"dateline": "August 6, 2021",
"subtitle": "Most of the world's farmers are smallholders. They are also often the poorest. How much of the world's food do they produce?",
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1 | 2023-07-28 12:36:28 | 2021-08-06 10:00:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LvL7skpKcB8ZOK0NxeGKslygciXXdNqNDLba-0vWpeBYvfa0yDxq3Ysw1S-SXGnqy4mo7_nHs1RSeWSIg | ** **It is often claimed that smallholder farmers produce 70% or even 80% of the world’s food. This claim has even been made by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UN FAO). It has been a linchpin for agricultural and development policies. But it is wrong. Recent studies suggest that this figure is too high: smallholder farmers produce around one-third of the world’s food, less than half of what these headlines claim. A key problem is that some use the terms ‘family farms’ and ‘smallholder farms’ interchangeably. _Family_ farms _do_ produce around 80% of the world’s food. These farms can be of any size, and should not be confused with smallholders. Most (84%) of the world’s 570 million farms are smallholdings; that is, farms less than two hectares in size.1 Many smallholder farmers are some of the [poorest people](http://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty) in the world. Tragically, and somewhat paradoxically, they are also those who often go hungry. A shift towards small-scale farming can be an important stage of a country’s development, especially if it has a large working age population. But, it’s gruelling work with poor returns: small farms can achieve good yields but need lots of human labor and input.2 Labor productivity is low. This is why countries move beyond a workforce of farmers: younger people get an education, [move towards cities](http://ourworldindata.org/urbanization), and try to secure a job with higher levels of productivity and income. A country cannot leave deep poverty behind when most of the population work as smallholder farmers. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has made incorrect claims about the world’s reliance on smallholder farmers in the past. One of its reports states that “small-scale farmers produce over 70% of the world’s food needs.”3 In other reports it [has said](https://www.donorplatform.org/publication-agenda-2030/un-decade-of-family-farming-2019-2028-global-action-plan.html) that smallholder and family farms (which raises issues of how t… | Smallholders produce one-third of the world’s food, less than half of what many headlines claim | |
| 1stO0TN11i5tDFMD9EUawQqC5lNQfueyRmimUsGSij-o | population-growth-over-time | article | {
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"text": "How has the world population growth rate changed?",
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"text": "The world population has changed dramatically over the last few centuries. Let\u2019s examine long-run population data to understand this change and how quickly the world\u2019s population is growing today.",
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"text": "The chart shows the increasing number of people living on our planet over the last 12,000 years. This is a mind-boggling change: the world population today is around 2,000 times the size of what it was 12,000 ago when it was around 4 million \u2014 less than half of the current population of London.",
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"text": "What is striking about this chart is, of course, that almost all of this growth happened just very recently. Historical demographers estimate that around 1800, the world population was only around 1 billion people. This implies that, on average, the population grew very slowly over this long time from 10,000 BCE to 1700 (by 0.04% annually). After 1800, this changed fundamentally: the world population was around 1 billion in 1800 and is now around 8 billion \u2014 8 times larger.",
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"text": "Around 108 billion people have ever lived on our planet. This means that today\u2019s population size makes up 6.5% of the total number of people ever born.",
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"text": "For a long period from the appearance of modern Homo sapiens up to the starting point of this chart in 10,000 BCE, it is estimated that the total world population was often well under one million.",
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"text": " In this period, our species was often seriously threatened by extinction.",
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"text": "We looked at the absolute change in the global population over time. But what about the rate of population growth?",
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"text": "The global population growth rate peaked long ago. The chart shows that global population growth peaked in 1962 and 1963 with an annual growth rate of 2.2%; however, since then, world population growth has halved.",
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"text": "For the last half-century, the population growth rate has been declining. The UN projects that this decline will continue in the coming decades.",
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"text": "A common question we\u2019re asked is: is the global population growing exponentially? The answer is no.",
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"text": "For population growth to be exponential, the growth rate would have to be the same over time (e.g., 2% growth yearly). In absolute terms, this would result in an exponential increase in the number of people. That\u2019s because we\u2019d be multiplying an ever-larger number of people by the same 2%. 2% of this year\u2019s population would be larger than 2% last year, and so on; this means the population would grow exponentially.",
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"text": "In this chart, we show the time it took the world population to double. On the vertical axis, we have the years it took to double; on the horizontal axis, we have the year that a population level was reached. Hover over each point to see the population change (for example, from 0.5 to 1 billion). Note that this uses data from the 2019 revision of the UN\u2019s World Population Prospects: we are working on an updated version with the latest data.",
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"text": "In the past, the population grew slowly: it took nearly seven centuries for the population to double from 0.25 billion (in the early 9th century) to 0.5 billion in the middle of the 16th century. As the growth rate slowly climbed, the population doubling time fell but remained in the order of centuries into the first half of the 20th century. Things sped up considerably in the middle of the 20th century.",
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"text": "Since then, population growth has been slowing, and the doubling time alongside it. In this visualization, we have used the UN projections to show how the doubling time is projected to change until the end of this century. By the 2080s, it will once again have taken approximately 100 years for the population to double to a predicted 10.4 billion.",
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"text": "It wasn\u2019t until 1805 that the world reached its first billion; it then took another 120 years to reach two billion. By the third billion, this period had reduced to 35 years, reduced further to 14 years to reach four. The fastest growth period occurred from 1974 to 2011, taking only 12 to 13 years to increase by one billion for the 5th, 6th, and 7th.",
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1 | 2023-07-07 10:32:40 | 2023-06-01 11:45:15 | 2023-12-28 16:31:11 | unlisted | ALBJ4LsmloLgpzOe9oFIYhxjg-Ae8HOvhXbshRjbDC7sijq6P1xQ-iaKpktUpDoei18frugzzZUjkVTP64D7WA | The world population has changed in dramatic ways over the last few centuries. Let’s take a look at long-run data on population to understand this change, and how quickly the world population is growing today. The chart shows the increasing number of people living on our planet over the last 12,000 years. A mind-boggling change: the world population today is around 2,000 times the size of what it was 12,000 ago when the world population was around 4 million – less than half of the current population of London. What is striking about this chart is of course that almost all of this growth happened just very recently. Historical demographers estimate that around the year 1800 the world population was only around 1 billion people. This implies that on average the population grew very slowly over this long time from 10,000 BCE to 1700 (by 0.04% annually). After 1800 this changed fundamentally: the world population was around 1 billion in the year 1800 and is now, at around 8 billion, 8 times larger. Around 108 billion people have ever lived on our planet. This means that today’s population size makes up 6.5% of the total number of people ever born.1 For the long period from the appearance of modern Homo sapiens up to the starting point of this chart in 10,000 BCE it is estimated that the total world population was often well under one million.2 In this period our species was often seriously threatened by extinction.3 You can explore the [interactive visualization](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/world-population-1750-2015-and-un-projection-until-2100) of this change. <Image filename="world-population-10000BC.png"/> ## How has the world population growth rate changed? We looked at the absolute change in the global population over time. But what about the rate of population growth? The global population growth rate peaked long ago. The chart shows that global population growth reached a peak in 1962 and 1963 with an annual growth rate of 2.2%; but since then, world population growth has halved.4 For the las… | How has world population growth changed over time? | |
| 1srs-VlnCNd1lMZBiuzNRUBsT41wWnGWddFRMiZ0jNaE | causes-of-death | topic-page | {
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"text": "Many leading causes of death receive little mainstream attention. If news reports reflected what children died from, they would say that around 1,400 young children die from diarrheal diseases, 1,000 die from malaria, and 1,900 from respiratory infections \u2013 ",
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1 | 2023-07-05 18:26:06 | 2023-09-05 11:19:59 | 2023-12-28 16:31:11 | listed | ALBJ4LvPEIjq8daySrr9rSbE0b2X4FwzoGNK3E8B_DceHHyNJIcXIda6ga8_34kerjrvO-IbPoqKzOXlMMBzpQ | What are people dying from? This question is essential to guide decisions in public health, and find ways to save lives. Many leading causes of death receive little mainstream attention. If news reports reflected what children died from, they would say that around 1,400 young children die from diarrheal diseases, 1,000 die from malaria, and 1,900 from respiratory infections – _every day_. This can change. Over time, death rates from these causes have declined across the world. A better understanding of the causes of death has led to the development of technologies, preventative measures, and better healthcare, reducing the chances of dying from a wide range of different causes, across all age groups. In the past, infectious diseases dominated. But death rates from infectious diseases have fallen quickly – faster than other causes. This has led to a shift in the leading causes of death. Now, non-communicable diseases – such as heart diseases and cancers – are the most common causes of death globally. More progress is possible, and the impact of causes of death can fall further. On this page, you will find global data and research on leading causes of death and how they can be prevented. This includes the number of people dying from each cause, their death rates, how they differ between age groups, and their trends over time. This data can also help understand the burden of disease more broadly, and offer a lens to see the impacts of healthcare and medicine, habits and behaviours, environmental factors, health infrastructure, and more. ## Key Insights on Causes of Death ### Globally, non-communicable diseases are the most common causes of death The chart shows what people died from globally, in 2019. Each box represents one cause, and its size is proportional to the number of deaths it caused. The most common causes of death globally — shown in blue — were from ‘non-communicable diseases’. This includes heart disease, cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases. They tend to develop gradually over time and … | Causes of Death | |
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"text": "The worldwide expansion of trade after the Second World War was largely possible because of reductions in transaction costs stemming from technological advances, such as the development of commercial civil aviation, the improvement of productivity in the merchant marines, and the democratization of the telephone as the main mode of communication. The visualization shows how, at the global level, costs across these three variables have been going down since 1930.",
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"text": "Reductions in transaction costs impacted not only the volumes of trade but also the types of exchanges that were possible and profitable.",
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"text": "The first wave of globalization was characterized by inter-industry trade. This means that countries exported goods that were very different from what they imported \u2013 England exchanged machines for Australian wool and Indian tea. As transaction costs went down, this changed. In the second wave of globalization, we are seeing a rise in ",
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"text": "-industry trade (i.e. the exchange of broadly similar goods and services is becoming more and more common). France, for example, now both imports and exports machines to and from Germany.",
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"text": "The following visualization, from the ",
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"text": "UN World Development Report (2009)",
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"text": ", plots the fraction of total world trade that is accounted for by intra-industry trade, by type of goods. As we can see, intra-industry trade has been going up for primary, intermediate, and final goods.",
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"text": "This pattern of trade is important because the scope for specialization increases if countries are able to exchange intermediate goods (e.g. auto parts) for related final goods (e.g. cars).",
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"text": "Share of intraindustry trade by type of goods \u2013 Figure 6.1 in ",
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"text": "Above, we examined the broad global trends over the last two centuries. Let's now examine country-level trends over this long and dynamic period.",
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"text": "This chart plots estimates of the value of trade in goods, relative to total economic activity (i.e. export-to-GDP ratios).",
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"text": "These historical estimates obviously come with a large margin of error (in the ",
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"text": "measurement section below",
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"text": " we discuss the data limitations); yet they offer an interesting perspective.",
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"text": "You can edit the countries and regions selected. Each country tells a different story.",
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"url": "#note-6",
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"text": "6",
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"text": "In the next chart we plot, country by country, the regional breakdown of exports. India is shown by default, but you can edit the countries and regions shown.",
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"text": "When switching to displaying relative values under \u2018Settings\u2019, we see the proportional contribution of purchases from each region. For example, we see that more than a third of Indian exports went to Asian countries in recent decades.",
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"text": "This gives us an interesting perspective on the changing nature of trade partnerships. In India, we see the rising importance of trade with Africa\u2014a pattern that we ",
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"text": "discuss in more detail below",
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"text": ".",
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"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/merchandise-exports-by-continent?facet=none&country=~IND",
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"text": [
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"text": "Trade around the world today",
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"text": [
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"text": "How much do countries trade?",
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"text": [
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"text": "Trade openness around the world",
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"text": "The metric trade as a share of GDP gives us an idea of global integration by capturing all incoming and outgoing transactions of a country.",
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"text": "The charts shows that countries differ a lot in the extent to which they engage in trade. Trade, for example, is much less important to the US economy than for other rich countries.",
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"text": "If you press the play button on the map, you can see changes over time. This reveals that, despite the great variation between countries, there is a common trend: over the last couple of decades trade openness has gone up in most countries.",
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"text": "Exports and imports in real dollars",
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"text": "Expressing the value of trade as a share of GDP tells us the importance of trade in relation to the size of economic activity. Let's now take a look at trade in monetary terms \u2013 this tells us the importance of trade in absolute, rather than relative terms.",
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"text": "The chart shows the value of exports (goods plus services) in dollars, country by country.",
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"text": "The main takeaway here is that the trend towards more trade is more pronounced than in the charts showing shares of GDP. This is not surprising: most countries today ",
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"text": "produce more than a couple of decades ago",
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"text": ", and at the same time they trade more of what they produce.",
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"url": "#note-7",
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"text": "7",
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"text": "What do countries trade?",
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"text": "Trade in goods vs. trade in services",
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"text": "Trade transactions include goods (tangible products that are physically shipped across borders by road, rail, water, or air) and services (intangible commodities, such as tourism, financial services, and legal advice).",
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],
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"text": "Many traded services make merchandise trade easier or cheaper\u2014for example, shipping services, or insurance and financial services.",
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"text": "Trade in goods has ",
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"text": "been happening for millennia",
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"text": ", while trade in services is a relatively recent phenomenon.",
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"text": "In some countries services are today an important driver of trade: in the UK services account for around half of all exports; and in the Bahamas, almost all exports are services.",
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"text": "In other countries, such as Nigeria and Venezuela, services account for a small share of total exports.",
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"text": "Globally, trade in goods accounts for the majority of trade transactions. But as this chart shows, the share of services in total global exports has slightly increased in recent decades.",
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"url": "#note-8",
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"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-services-in-total-exports?country=BMU+BRA+NGA+GBR+USA+VEN+OWID_WRL+BHS",
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"text": [
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"text": "How are trade partnerships changing?",
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"text": [
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"text": "Bilateral trade is becoming increasingly common",
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"text": "If we consider all pairs of countries that engage in trade around the world, we find that in the majority of cases, there is a bilateral relationship today: most countries that export goods to a country also import goods from the same country.",
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"text": "The interactive visualization shows this.",
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"text": " In the chart, all possible country pairs are partitioned into three categories: the top portion represents the fraction of country pairs that do not trade with one another; the middle portion represents those that trade in both directions (they export to one another); and the bottom portion represents those that trade in one direction only (one country imports from, but does not export to, the other country).",
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"text": "As we can see, bilateral trade is becoming increasingly common (the middle portion has grown substantially). However, many countries still do not trade with each other at all.",
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"text": [
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"text": "South-South trade is becoming increasingly important",
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"text": "The next visualization here shows the share of world merchandise trade that corresponds to exchanges between today's rich countries and the rest of the world.",
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"text": "The 'rich countries' in this chart are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States. 'Non-rich countries' are all the other countries in the world.",
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"text": "As we can see, up until the Second World War, the majority of trade transactions involved exchanges between this small group of rich countries. But this has changed quickly over the last couple of decades, and today, trade between non-rich countries is just as important as trade between rich countries.",
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"text": "In the past two decades, China has been a key driver of this dynamic: the ",
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"url": "https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2013",
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"text": " estimates that between 1992 and 2011, China's trade with Sub-Saharan Africa rose from $1 billion to more than $140 billion.",
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"url": "#note-10",
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"text": "10",
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"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-world-merchandise-trade-by-type-of-trade-percent",
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"text": [
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"text": "The majority of preferential trade agreements are between emerging economies",
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"text": "The last few decades have not only seen an increase in the volume of international trade, but also an increase in the number of preferential trade agreements through which exchanges take place. A preferential trade agreement is a trade pact that reduces tariffs between the participating countries for certain products.",
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"text": "The visualization here shows the evolution of the cumulative number of preferential trade agreements in force worldwide, according to the World Trade Organization (WTO). These numbers include notified and non-notified preferential agreements (the source reports that only about two-thirds of the agreements currently in force have been notified to the WTO) and are disaggregated by country groups.",
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"text": "This figure shows the increasingly important role of trade between developing countries (South-South trade), vis-a-vis trade between developed and developing countries (North-South trade). In the late 1970s, North-South agreements accounted for more than half of all agreements \u2013 in 2010, they accounted for about one-quarter. Today, the majority of preferential trade agreements are between developing economies.",
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"text": "Number of preferential trade agreements in force by country group, 1950-2010 \u2013 Figure B1 in ",
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"url": "https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/world_trade_report11_e.pdf",
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"text": [
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"text": "Trading patterns have been changing quickly in middle-income countries",
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"text": "An important change in the composition of exported goods in these countries has accompanied the increase in trade among emerging economies over the last half century.",
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"text": "The next visualization plots the share of food exports in each country's total exported merchandise. These figures, produced by the World Bank, correspond to the Standard International Trade Classification, in which 'food' includes, among other goods, live animals, beverages, tobacco, coffee, oils, and fats.",
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"text": "Two points stand out. First, the relative importance of food exports has substantially decreased in most countries since the 1960s (although globally, it has gone up slightly more recently). Second, this decrease has been largest in middle-income countries, particularly in Latin America.",
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"text": "Regarding levels, as one would expect, in high-income countries, food still accounts for a much smaller share of merchandise exports than in most low- and middle-income-countries.",
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"text": [
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"text": "Trade generates efficiency gains",
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"text": [
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"text": "The raw correlation between trade and growth",
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"text": "Over the last couple of centuries, the world economy has experienced ",
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"text": "sustained positive economic growth",
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],
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{
"text": ", and over the same period, this process of economic growth has been accompanied by ",
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{
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"children": [
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"text": "even faster growth in global trade",
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],
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{
"text": ".",
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"text": "In a similar way, if we look at country-level data from the last half century we find that there is also a correlation between economic growth and trade: countries with higher rates of GDP growth also tend to have higher rates of growth in trade as a share of output. This basic correlation is shown in the chart here, where we plot the average annual change in real GDP per capita, against growth in trade (average annual change in value of exports as a share of GDP).",
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{
"url": "#note-11",
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"text": "11",
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"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/growth-of-income-and-trade",
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"text": "Is this statistical association between economic output and trade causal?",
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"value": [
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"text": "Among the potential growth-enhancing factors that may come from greater global economic integration are: competition (firms that fail to adopt new technologies and cut costs are more likely to fail and be replaced by more dynamic firms); economies of scale (firms that can export to the world face larger demand, and under the right conditions, they can operate at larger scales where the price per unit of product is lower); learning and innovation (firms that trade gain more experience and exposure to develop and adopt technologies and industry standards from foreign competitors).",
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"url": "#note-12",
"children": [
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"text": "12",
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"text": "Are these mechanisms supported by the data? Let's take a look at the available empirical evidence.",
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"text": [
{
"text": "Evidence from cross-country differences in trade, growth, and productivity",
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"text": "When it comes to academic studies estimating the impact of trade on GDP growth, the most cited paper is Frankel and Romer (1999).",
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"url": "#note-13",
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"text": "In this study, Frankel and Romer used geography as a proxy for trade to estimate the impact of trade on growth. This is a classic example of the so-called ",
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"text": "instrumental variables approach",
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"text": ". The idea is that a country's geography is fixed, and mainly affects national income through trade. So if we observe that a country's distance from other countries is a powerful predictor of economic growth (after accounting for other characteristics), then the conclusion is drawn that it must be because ",
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"text": " has an effect on economic growth. Following this logic, Frankel and Romer find evidence of a strong impact of trade on economic growth.",
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"text": "Other papers have applied the same approach to richer cross-country data, and they have found similar results. A key example is Alcal\u00e1 and Ciccone (2004).",
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"url": "#note-14",
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"text": "This body of evidence suggests trade is indeed one of the factors driving national average incomes (GDP per capita) and macroeconomic productivity (GDP per worker) over the long run.",
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"url": "#note-15",
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"text": "Evidence from changes in labor productivity at the firm level",
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"text": "If trade is causally linked to economic growth, we would expect that trade liberalization episodes also lead to firms becoming more productive in the medium and even short run. There is evidence suggesting this is often the case.",
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"text": "Pavcnik (2002) examined the effects of liberalized trade on plant productivity in the case of Chile, during the late 1970s and early 1980s. She found a positive impact on firm productivity in the import-competing sector. She also found evidence of aggregate productivity improvements from the reshuffling of resources and output from less to more efficient producers.",
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"text": "Bloom, Draca, and Van Reenen (2016) examined the impact of rising Chinese import competition on European firms over the period 1996-2007 and obtained similar results. They found that innovation increased more in those firms most affected by Chinese imports. They also found evidence of efficiency gains through two related channels: innovation increased and new existing technologies were adopted within firms, and aggregate productivity also increased because employment was reallocated towards more technologically advanced firms.",
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"text": "Overall, the available evidence suggests that trade liberalization does improve economic efficiency. This evidence comes from different political and economic contexts and includes both micro and macro measures of efficiency.",
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"text": "This result is important because it shows that there are gains from trade. But of course, efficiency is not the only relevant consideration here. As we discuss in a ",
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"text": ", the efficiency gains from trade are not generally equally shared by everyone. The evidence from the impact of trade on firm productivity confirms this: \"reshuffling workers from less to more efficient producers\" means closing down some jobs in some places. Because distributional concerns are real it is important to promote public policies \u2013 such as unemployment benefits and other safety-net programs \u2013 that help redistribute the gains from trade.",
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"text": "The conceptual link between trade and household welfare",
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"text": "When a country opens up to trade, the demand and supply of goods and services in the economy shift. As a consequence, local markets respond, and prices change. This has an impact on households, both as consumers and as wage earners.",
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"text": "The implication is that trade has an impact on everyone. It's not the case that the effects are restricted to workers from industries in the trade sector; or to consumers who buy imported goods. The effects of trade extend to everyone because markets are interlinked, so imports and exports have knock-on effects on all prices in the economy, including those in non-traded sectors.",
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"text": "Economists usually distinguish between \"general equilibrium consumption effects\" (i.e. changes in consumption that arise from the fact that trade affects the prices of non-traded goods relative to traded goods) and \"general equilibrium income effects\" (i.e. changes in wages that arise from the fact that trade has an impact on the demand for specific types of workers, who could be employed in both the traded and non-traded sectors).",
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"text": "Considering all these complex interrelations, it's not surprising that economic theories predict that not everyone will benefit from international trade in the same way. The distribution of the gains from trade depends on what different groups of people consume, and which types of jobs they have, or could have.",
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"text": "Evidence from Chinese imports and their impact on factory workers in the US",
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"text": "The most famous study looking at this question is Autor, Dorn and Hanson (2013): \"The China syndrome: Local labor market effects of import competition in the United States\".",
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"text": "In this paper, Autor and coauthors examined how local labor markets changed in the parts of the country most exposed to Chinese competition. They found that rising exposure increased unemployment, lowered labor force participation, and reduced wages. Additionally, they found that claims for unemployment and healthcare benefits also increased in more trade-exposed labor markets.",
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"text": "The visualization here is one of the key charts from their paper. It's a scatter plot of cross-regional exposure to rising imports, against changes in employment. Each dot is a small region (a 'commuting zone' to be precise). The vertical position of the dots represents the percent change in manufacturing employment for the working-age population, and the horizontal position represents the predicted exposure to rising imports (exposure varies across regions depending on the local weight of different industries).",
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"text": "The trend line in this chart shows a negative relationship: more exposure goes along with less employment. There are large deviations from the trend (there are some low-exposure regions with big negative changes in employment); but the paper provides more sophisticated regressions and robustness checks, and finds that this relationship is statistically significant.",
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"text": "Exposure to rising Chinese imports and changes in employment across local labor markets in the US (1999-2007) \u2013 Autor, Dorn, and Hanson (2013)",
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"text": "This result is important because it shows that the labor market adjustments were large. Many workers and communities were affected over a long period of time.",
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"text": "But it's also important to keep in mind that Autor and colleagues are only giving us a partial perspective on the total effect of trade on employment. In particular, comparing changes in employment at the regional level misses the fact that firms operate in multiple regions and industries at the same time. Indeed, Ildik\u00f3 Magyari found evidence suggesting the Chinese trade shock provided incentives for US firms to diversify and reorganize production.",
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"text": "So companies that outsourced jobs to China often ended up closing some lines of business, but at the same time expanded other lines elsewhere in the US. This means that job losses in some regions subsidized new jobs in other parts of the country.",
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"text": "On the whole, Magyari finds that although Chinese imports may have reduced employment within some establishments, these losses were more than offset by gains in employment within the same firms in other places. This is no consolation to people who lost their jobs. But it is necessary to add this perspective to the simplistic story of \"trade with China is bad for US workers\".",
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"text": "Evidence from the expansion of trade in India and the impact on poverty reductions",
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"text": "Another important paper in this field is Topalova (2010): \"Factor immobility and regional impacts of trade liberalization: Evidence on poverty from India\".",
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"text": "In this paper, Topalova examines the impact of trade liberalization on poverty across different regions in India, using the sudden and extensive change in India's trade policy in 1991. She finds that rural regions that were more exposed to liberalization experienced a slower decline in poverty and lower consumption growth.",
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"text": "Analyzing the mechanisms underlying this effect, Topalova finds that liberalization had a stronger negative impact among the least geographically mobile at the bottom of the income distribution and in places where labor laws deterred workers from reallocating across sectors.",
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"text": "The evidence from India shows that (i) discussions that only look at \"winners\" in poor countries and \"losers\" in rich countries miss the point that the gains from trade are unequally distributed within both sets of countries; and (ii) context-specific factors, like worker mobility across sectors and geographic regions, are crucial to understand the impact of trade on incomes.",
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"text": "Donaldson (2018) uses archival data from colonial India to estimate the impact of India\u2019s vast railroad network. He finds railroads increased trade, and in doing so they increased real incomes (and reduced income volatility).",
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"text": "Porto (2006) looks at the distributional effects of ",
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"text": " on Argentine families, and finds this regional trade agreement led to benefits across the entire income distribution. He finds the effect was progressive: poor households gained more than middle-income households because prior to the reform, trade protection benefitted the rich disproportionately.",
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"text": "Trefler (2004) looks at the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement and finds there was a group who bore \"adjustment costs\" (displaced workers and struggling plants) and a group who enjoyed \"long-run gains\" (consumers and efficient plants). ",
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"text": "The fact that trade negatively affects labor market opportunities for specific groups of people does not necessarily imply that trade has a negative aggregate effect on household welfare. This is because, while trade affects wages and employment, it also affects the prices of consumption goods. So households are affected both as consumers and as wage earners.",
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"text": "Most studies focus on the earnings channel and try to approximate the impact of trade on welfare by looking at how much wages can buy, using as a reference the changing prices of a fixed basket of goods.",
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"text": "This approach is problematic because it fails to consider welfare gains from increased product variety, and obscures complicated distributional issues such as the fact that poor and rich individuals consume different baskets so they benefit differently from changes in relative prices.",
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"text": "Ideally, studies looking at the impact of trade on household welfare should rely on fine-grained data on prices, consumption, and earnings. This is the approach followed in Atkin, Faber, and Gonzalez-Navarro (2018): \"Retail globalization and household welfare: Evidence from Mexico\".",
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"text": "Atkin and coauthors use a uniquely rich dataset from Mexico, and find that the arrival of global retail chains led to reductions in the incomes of traditional retail sector workers, but had little impact on average municipality-level incomes or employment; and led to lower costs of living for both rich and poor households.",
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"text": "The chart here shows the estimated distribution of total welfare gains across the household income distribution (the light-gray lines correspond to confidence intervals). These are proportional gains expressed as a percent of initial household income.",
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"text": "As we can see, there is a net positive welfare effect across all income groups; but these improvements in welfare are regressive, in the sense that richer households gain proportionally more (about 7.5 percent gain compared to 5 percent).",
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"text": "Evidence from other countries confirms this is not an isolated case \u2013 the expenditure channel really seems to be an important and understudied source of household welfare. Giuseppe Berlingieri, Holger Breinlich, Swati Dhingra, for example, investigated the consumer benefits from trade agreements implemented by the EU between 1993 and 2013; and they found that these trade agreements increased the quality of available products, which translated into a cumulative reduction in consumer prices equivalent to savings of \u20ac24 billion per year for EU consumers.",
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"text": "Distribution of total household welfare gains from the arrival of foreign retail chains in Mexico \u2013 Atkin, Faber, and Gonzalez-Navarro (2018)",
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"text": "The available evidence shows that, for some groups of people, trade has a negative effect on wages and employment opportunities; at the same time, it has a large positive effect via lower consumer prices and increased product availability.",
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"text": "Two points are worth emphasizing.",
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"text": "For some households, the net effect is positive. But for some households that's not the case. In particular, workers who lose their jobs can be affected for extended periods of time, so the positive effect via lower prices is not enough to compensate them for the reduction in earnings.",
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"text": "On the whole, if we aggregate changes in welfare across households, the net effect is usually positive. But this is hardly a consolation for the worse off.",
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"text": "This highlights a complex reality: There are ",
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"text": ", but there are also real distributional concerns. Even if ",
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"text": ", it's important to keep in mind that public policies, such as unemployment benefits and other safety-net programs, can and should help redistribute the gains from trade.",
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"text": "Explaining trade patterns: Theory and Evidence",
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"text": "In economic theory, the 'economic cost' \u2013 or the 'opportunity cost' \u2013 of producing a good is the value of everything you need to give up in order to produce that good.",
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"text": "The forgone opportunities of production are key to understanding this concept. It is precisely this that distinguishes absolute advantage from comparative advantage.",
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"text": "To see the difference between comparative and absolute advantage, consider a commercial aviation pilot and a baker. Suppose the pilot is an excellent chef, and she can bake just as well, or even better than the baker. In this case, the pilot has an absolute advantage in both tasks. Yet the baker probably has a comparative advantage in baking, because the opportunity cost of baking is much higher for the pilot.",
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"text": "\"A person or country has comparative advantage in the production of a particular good, if the cost of producing an additional unit of that good relative to the cost of producing another good is lower than another person or country\u2019s cost to produce the same two goods.\"",
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"text": "At the individual level, comparative advantage explains why you might want to delegate tasks to someone else, even if you can do those tasks better and faster than them. This may sound counterintuitive, but it is not: If you are good at many things, it means that investing time in one task has a high opportunity cost, because you are not doing the other amazing things you could be doing with your time and resources. So, at least from an efficiency point of view, you should specialize on what you are best at, and delegate the rest.",
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"text": "The same logic applies to countries. Broadly speaking, the principle of comparative advantage postulates that all nations can gain from trade if each specializes in producing what they are relatively more efficient at producing, and imports the rest: \u201cdo what you do best, import the rest\u201d.",
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"text": "In countries with a relative abundance of certain factors of production, the theory of comparative advantage predicts that they will export goods that rely heavily upon those factors: a country typically has a comparative advantage in those goods that use its abundant resources. Colombia exports bananas to Europe because it has comparatively abundant tropical weather.",
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"text": "Is there empirical support for comparative-advantage theories of trade?",
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"text": "The empirical evidence suggests that the principle of comparative advantage does help explain trade patterns. Bernhofen and Brown (2004)",
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"text": ", for instance, provide evidence using the experience of Japan. Specifically, they exploit Japan\u2019s dramatic nineteenth-century move from a state of near complete isolation to wide trade openness.",
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"text": "The graph here shows the price changes of the key tradable goods after the opening up to trade. It presents a scatter diagram of the net exports in 1869 graphed in relation to the change in prices from 1851\u201353 to 1869. As we can see, this is consistent with the theory: after opening to trade, the relative prices of major exports such as silk increased (Japan exported what was cheap for them to produce and which was valuable abroad), while the relative price of imports such as sugar declined (they imported what was relatively more difficult for them to produce, but was cheap abroad).",
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"text": "The resistance that geography imposes on trade has long been studied in the empirical economics literature \u2013 and the main conclusion is that trade intensity is strongly linked to geographic distance.",
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"text": "The visualization, from Eaton and Kortum (2002), graphs 'normalized import shares' against distance.",
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"text": " Each dot represents a country pair from a set of 19 OECD countries, and both the vertical and horizontal axes are expressed on logarithmic scales.",
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"text": "The 'normalized import shares' in the vertical axis provide a measure of how much each country imports from different partners (see the paper for details on how this is calculated and normalized), while the distance in the horizontal axis corresponds to the distance between central cities in each country (see the paper and references therein for details on the list of cities). As we can see, there is a strong negative relationship. Trade diminishes with distance. Through econometric modeling, the paper shows that this relationship is not just a correlation driven by other factors: their findings suggest that distance imposes a significant barrier to trade.",
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"text": "The fact that trade diminishes with distance is also corroborated by data on trade intensity within countries. The visualization here shows, through a series of maps, the geographic distribution of French firms that export to France's neighboring countries. The colors reflect the percentage of firms that export to each specific country.",
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"text": "As we can see, the share of firms exporting to each of the corresponding neighbors is the largest close to the border. The authors also show in the paper that this pattern holds for the value of individual-firm exports \u2013 trade value decreases with distance to the border.",
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"text": "Percentage of firms which export in France, by importing country, 1992 \u2013 Figure 2 in Crozet and Koenig (2010)",
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"text": "Institutions",
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"text": "Conducting international trade requires both financial and non-financial institutions to support transactions. Some of these institutions are fairly obvious (e.g. law enforcement); but some are less obvious. For example, the evidence shows that producers in exporting countries often need credit in order to engage in trade.",
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"text": "The scatter plot, from Manova (2013), shows the correlation between levels in private credit (specifically exporters\u2019 private credit as a share of GDP) and exports (average log bilateral exports across destinations and sectors).",
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"text": " As can be seen, financially developed economies \u2013 those with more dynamic private credit markets \u2013 typically outperform exporters with less evolved financial institutions.",
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"text": "Other studies have shown that country-specific institutions, like the knowledge of foreign languages, for instance, are also important to promote foreign relative to domestic trade.",
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"text": "The concept of comparative advantage predicts that if all countries had identical endowments and institutions, there would be little incentive for specialization because the opportunity cost of producing any good would be the same in every country.",
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"text": "So you may wonder: why is it then the case that in the last few years, we have seen such rapid growth in intra-industry trade between rich countries?",
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"text": "The increase in intra-industry between rich countries seems paradoxical under the light of comparative advantage because in recent decades we have seen convergence in key factors, such as ",
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"text": "The solution to the paradox is actually not very complicated: Comparative advantage is one, but not the only force driving incentives to specialization and trade.",
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"text": "Several economists, most notably Paul Krugman, have developed theories of trade in which trade is not due to differences between countries, but instead due to \"increasing returns to scale\" \u2013 an economic term used to denote a technology in which producing extra units of a good becomes cheaper if you operate at a larger scale.",
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"text": "The idea is that specialization allows countries to reap greater economies of scale (i.e. to reduce production costs by focusing on producing large quantities of specific products), so trade can be a good idea even if the countries do not differ in endowments, including culture and institutions.",
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"text": "These models of trade, often referred to as \u201cNew Trade Theory\u201d, are helpful in explaining why in the last few years we have seen such rapid growth in two-way exchanges of goods within industries between developed nations.",
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"text": "In a much-cited paper, Evenett and Keller (2002) show that both factor endowments and increasing returns help explain production and trade patterns around the world.",
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"text": "You can learn more about New Trade Theory, and the empirical support behind it, in ",
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"text": "There are dozens of official sources of data on international trade, and if you compare these different sources, you will find that they do not agree with one another. Even if you focus on what seems to be the same indicator for the same year in the same country, discrepancies are large.",
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"text": "Such differences between sources can also be found in rich countries where statistical agencies tend to follow international reporting guidelines more closely.",
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"text": "There are also large bilateral discrepancies within sources: the value of goods that country A exports to country B can be more than the value of goods that country B imports from country A.",
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"text": "Here we explain how international trade data is collected and processed, and why there are such large discrepancies.",
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"text": "The data hubs from several large international organizations publish and maintain extensive cross-country datasets on international trade. Here's a list of the most important ones:",
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"text": "In addition to these sources, there are also many other academic projects that publish data on international trade. These projects tend to rely on data from one or more of the sources above, and they typically process and merge series in order to improve coverage and consistency. Three important sources are:",
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"text": "In the visualization here, we compare the data published by several of the sources listed above, country by country, from 1955 to today.",
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"text": "For each country, we exclude trade in services, and we focus only on estimates of the total value of exported goods, expressed as shares of GDP.",
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"text": "As this chart clearly shows, different data sources often tell very different stories. If you change the country or region shown you will see that this is true, to varying degrees, across all countries and years.",
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"text": "Constructing this chart was demanding. It required downloading trade data from many different sources, collecting the relevant series, and then standardizing them so that the units of measure and the geographical territories were consistent.",
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"text": "All series, except the two long-run series from CEPII and NBER-UN, were produced from data published by the sources in current US dollars and then converted to GDP shares using a unique source (World Bank).",
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"text": "So, if all series are in the same units (share of national GDP) and they measure the same thing (value of goods exported from one country to the rest of the world), what explains the differences?",
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"text": "Let's dig deeper to understand what's going on.",
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"text": "Why doesn't the data add up?",
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"text": " (FOB) basis', which means using prices that include all charges up to placing the goods on board a ship at the port of departure. Yet many countries stick to FOB values only for exports, and use CIF values for imports (CIF stands for 'Cost, Insurance and Freight', and includes the costs of transportation).",
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"text": "The chart here gives you an idea of how large import-export asymmetries are. Shown are the differences between the value of goods that each country reports exporting to the US, and the value of goods that the US reports importing from the same countries. For example, for China, the figure in the chart corresponds to the \u201cValue of merchandise imports in the US from China\u201d minus the \u201cValue of merchandise exports from China to the US\u201d.",
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"text": "Another common source of measurement error relates to the inconsistent attribution of trade partners. An example is failure to follow the guidelines on how to treat goods passing through intermediary countries for processing or merchanting purposes. As global production chains become more complex, countries find it increasingly difficult to unambiguously establish the origin and final destination of merchandise, even when rules are established in the manuals.",
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"text": "And there are still more potential sources of discrepancies. For example differences in customs and tax regimes, and differences between \"general\" and \"special\" trade systems (i.e. differences between statistical territories and actual country borders, which do not often coincide because of things like 'custom free zones').",
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"text": "Even when two sources have identical trade estimates, inconsistencies in published data can arise from differences in exchange rates. If a dataset reports cross-country trade data in US dollars, estimates will vary depending on the exchange rates used. Different exchange rates will lead to conflicting estimates, even if figures in local currency units are consistent.",
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"text": "The corrections applied in the OECD's 'balanced' series make this the best source for cross-country comparisons. However, this dataset has low coverage across countries, and it only goes back to 2011. This is an important obstacle since the complex adjustments introduced by the OECD imply we can't easily improve coverage by appending data from other sources. At Our World in Data we have chosen to rely on CEPII as the main source for exploring long-run changes in international trade, but we also rely on World Bank and OECD data for up-to-date cross-country comparisons.",
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"text": "There are two key lessons from all of this. The first lesson is that, for most users of trade data out there, there is no obvious way of choosing between sources. And the second lesson is that, because of statistical glitches, researchers and policymakers should always take analyses of trade data with a pinch of salt. For example, in a recent ",
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"text": ", researchers attributed mismatches in bilateral trade data to illicit financial flows through trade mis-invoicing (or trade-based money laundering). As we show here, this interpretation of the data is not appropriate, since mismatches in the data can, and often do arise from measurement inconsistencies rather than malfeasance.",
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"text": "Leonor Freire Costa, Nuno Palma, and Jaime Reis (2015) \u2013 The great escape? The contribution of the empire to Portugal's economic growth, 1500\u20131800 Leonor Freire Costa Nuno Palma Jaime Reis European Review of Economic History, Volume 19, Issue 1, 1 February 2015, Pages 1\u201322, https://doi.org/10.1093/ereh/heu019",
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"text": "Nobel laureate Paul Samuelson (1969) was once challenged by the mathematician Stanislaw Ulam: \"Name me one proposition in all of the social sciences which is both true and non-trivial.\" It was several years later than he thought of the correct response: comparative advantage. \"That it is logically true need not be argued before a mathematician; that is is not trivial is attested by the thousands of important and intelligent men who have never been able to grasp the doctrine for themselves or to believe it after it was explained to them.\"",
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"text": "Crozet, M., & Koenig, P. (2010). Structural Gravity Equations with Intensive and Extensive Margins. The Canadian Journal of Economics / Revue Canadienne D'Economique, 43(1), 41-62. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40389555",
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"text": "It's important to mention here that the economist Jonathan Rothwell wrote a ",
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"text": ". The Review of Economic Studies, 69(1), 245-276.",
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"text": "There are many papers that try to answer this specific question with macro data. For an overview of papers and methods see: Durlauf, S. N., Johnson, P. A., & Temple, J. R. (2005). Growth econometrics. Handbook of economic growth, 1, 555-677.",
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"text": "Broadberry and O'Rourke (2010) - The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe: Volume 2, 1870 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. The graph depicts the \u201cevolution of three indicators measuring integration in commodity, labor, and capital markets over the long run. Commodity market integration is measured by computing the ratio of exports to GDP. Labor market integration is measured by dividing the migratory turnover by population. Financial integration is measured using Feldstein\u2013Horioka estimators of current account disconnectedness.\u201d",
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"text": " you can explore trends in trade openness over this period for a selection of European countries.",
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"text": "Evenett, S. J., & Keller, W. (2002). ",
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"text": "There are different ways of capturing this correlation. I focus here on all countries with data over the period 1945-2014. You can find a similar chart using different data sources and time periods in Ventura, J. (2005). A global view of economic growth. Handbook of economic growth, 1, 1419-1497. Online ",
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"text": "This issue is actually also a source of disagreement between National Accounts data and customs data. You can read more about it in this report: ",
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"text": "Harrison, Anne (2013) FOB/CIF Issue in Merchandise Trade/Transport of Goods in BPM6 and the 2008 SNA, Twenty-Fifth Meeting of the IMF Committee on Balance of Payments Statistics, Washington, D.C",
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"text": "You can read more about these economic concepts, and the related predictions from economic theory, in Chapter 18 of the textbook ",
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"text": "Berlingieri, G., Breinlich, H., & Dhingra, S. (2018). The Impact of Trade Agreements on Consumer Welfare\u2014Evidence from the EU Common External Trade Policy. Journal of the European Economic Association.",
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"text": "The chart includes series labeled by the sources as 'merchandise trade' and 'goods trade'. As we explain below, part of the asymmetries in trade data comes from the fact that, although 'merchandise' and 'goods' are equivalent in the dictionary, these two terms often measure related but different things.",
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"text": ". American Economic Review, 103(6), 2121-68.",
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"text": "This chart was inspired by a chart from Helpman, E., Melitz, M., & Rubinstein, Y. (2007). Estimating trade flows: Trading partners and trading volumes (No. w12927). National Bureau of Economic Research.",
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"text": "The OECD approach consists of four steps, which they describe as follows: \"First, data are collected and organized, and imports are converted to FOB prices to match the valuation of exports. Secondly, data are adjusted for several specific large problems known to drive asymmetries. Presently these include \u201cmodular\u201d adjustments for unallocated and confidential trade; for exports by Hong Kong, China; for Swiss non-monetary gold; and for clear-cut cases of product misclassifications. The list of modules is expected to grow over time. In the third step, adjusted data are balanced using a \u201cSymmetry Index\u201d that weights exports and imports. As the final step, the data are also converted to Classification of Products by Activity (CPA) products to better align with National Accounts statistics, such as in national Supply-Use tables.\" You can read more about it ",
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"text": ". In addition to the OECD, other sources also use corrections. The IMF's DOTS dataset, for example, uses a 6 percent rule for converting import valuations (in CIF) into export values (in FOB). More information can be found in ",
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"text": "Bloom, N., Draca, M., & Van Reenen, J. (2016). Trade induced technical change? The impact of Chinese imports on innovation, IT and productivity. The Review of Economic Studies, 83(1), 87-117. Available online ",
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"text": "Bernhofen, D., & Brown, J. (2004). A Direct Test of the Theory of Comparative Advantage: The Case of Japan. Journal of Political Economy, 112(1), 48-67. doi:1. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/379944 doi:1",
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1 | 2023-11-10 14:14:22 | 2018-10-01 13:16:00 | 2023-12-28 16:31:11 | unlisted | ALBJ4LsGp4SIu0H1hMBgOXPX9ibpXTIO6RJp8E5ZFfYpN7ifBNqm98E52KjnwFAV0OBHLo7XBIo0k4ypPchYBw | In this topic page we analyze available data and research on international trade patterns, including the determinants and consequences of globalization over the last couple of decades. Here is an overview of the main points we cover below. **Related topics:** * [Is trade a major driver of income inequality?](https://ourworldindata.org/trade-and-income-inequality) – a brief discussion of the link between globalization and income inequality. * [Is globalization an engine of economic development?](https://ourworldindata.org/is-globalization-an-engine-of-economic-development) – an overview of the main arguments linking globalization and economic development. **[See all interactive charts on Trade and Globalization ↓](#all-charts)** --- # Trade has changed the world economy --- ## Trade has grown remarkably over the last century The integration of national economies into a global economic system has been one of the most important developments of the last century. This process of integration, often called Globalization, has materialized in a remarkable growth in trade between countries. The chart here shows the value of world exports over the period 1800-2014. These estimates are in constant prices (i.e. have been adjusted to account for inflation) and are indexed at 1913 values. This chart shows an extraordinary growth in international trade over the last couple of centuries: Exports today are more than 40 times larger than in 1913. You can click on the option marked 'Linear', on top of the vertical axis, to change into a logarithmic scale. This will help you see that, over the long run, growth has roughly followed an exponential path. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/world-trade-exports-constant-prices"/> ### Trade has grown more than proportionately with GDP The chart above shows how much more trade we have today relative to a century ago. But what about trade relative to total economic output? Over the last couple of centuries the world economy has experienced [sustained positive econ… | Trade and Globalization | |
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1 | 2023-12-02 02:39:23 | 2019-10-16 16:08:12 | 2024-01-30 12:57:57 | listed | ALBJ4LtCUSTmzq1_Yl1zwye2w0K4ohmes9oScjy3SLJUAZ6b6n83ZgQcnx3HOLj0FCZWQTNp6H6vjhJWG0JdyA | Our World in Data is a winner of this year's Lovie Awards. The Lovie Award is the European internet award and just like its American counterpart, the Webby Awards, it is awarded by the _International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences_. Their description of why they award the prize to us captures really well why we are doing this work: -- [Here](https://www.lovieawards.com/features/2019-winners-announced/) is the description of all winners of the 2019 Lovie Awards. A huge honor to all of us! Thank you for your support to make this work possible. | We won the Lovie Award! | |
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"text": "To grow food you need two things: some land and some of your time. These two \u2013 land and labor \u2013 are two of agriculture\u2019s \u2018inputs\u2019. To build a food system that works for people and the planet, humanity needs to achieve high productivity in both of them.",
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"text": "Across much of Sub-Saharan Africa, the productivity of both input factors is low. Agricultural productivity across the region needs to improve to reduce hunger, poverty, and the destruction of biodiversity. This is why I think that it is one of the most important problems to tackle this century.",
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"text": "This is also due to rich countries\u2019 policies towards Africa. Trade policies in other regions have made this even more challenging for African farmers. The EU\u2019s agricultural policies, in particular, have received criticism for their impact on global markets.",
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1 | 2024-03-05 18:41:58 | 2022-04-04 10:00:00 | 2024-03-05 18:55:39 | listed | ALBJ4LuQp0Xib3KQ183_aZv5g3tUtHMErWJQSuX8rxAiNRw3PuJbSTmOAI5lrfv7eRr7jOUdZs9Zu_HPy2rTKA | To grow food you need two things: some land and some of your time. These two – land and labor – are two of agriculture’s ‘inputs’. To build a food system that works for people and the planet, humanity needs to achieve high productivity in both of them. To escape poverty, farmers need to increase **labor productivity **– to produce more food per hour worked. It is a deep societal problem when most of the population works in farming and gets little money in return. The farmers' families are unable to get a good education; improve healthcare; and to free up labor so that their children can become teachers or build new industries outside of agriculture. To protect the world’s wildlife, we need high **land productivity **– to produce more food per unit of land area. Land productivity for crops is measured as ‘[crop yields](http://ourworldindata.org/crop-yields)’. If humanity wants to reduce deforestation and protect habitats rich in biodiversity then we need to use less land to grow food. Across much of Sub-Saharan Africa, the productivity of both input factors is low. Agricultural productivity across the region needs to improve to reduce hunger, poverty, and the destruction of biodiversity. This is why I think that it is one of the most important problems to tackle this century.1 # Labor productivity is low across much of Sub-Saharan Africa Rates of extreme poverty across Sub-Saharan Africa are still very high. While it has made progress in recent decades, 40% of the population [still live below](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-in-extreme-poverty?tab=chart&country=~Sub-Saharan+Africa) the international poverty line of 1.90 international-dollars per day. This is a very low poverty line, used to identify those in [the deepest poverty](https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty-in-brief). Much of this is explained by the fact that [more than half](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-the-labor-force-employed-in-agriculture?tab=chart&time=1300..latest&country=~Sub-Saharan+Africa) of th… | Increasing agricultural productivity across Sub-Saharan Africa is one of the most important problems this century | |
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1 | 2023-07-21 16:48:57 | 2013-03-15 19:46:21 | 2024-02-26 17:56:39 | unlisted | ALBJ4LvFElJiTHqmCDifVCx118nFzhX6YMhJ22GzL2O-kC1k-bF65lfmPbEq-Wo98P9xPCvUrCXtFlomXtBBMQ | Democracy is broadly understood to mean ‘rule by the people’. In practice, it is often defined as people choosing their leaders in free and fair elections. Other definitions go beyond this. For example, some of them see democracy as people having additional individual rights and being protected from the state. Democracy gives citizens the right to influence important decisions over their own lives and allows them to hold their leaders accountable. But it can have other benefits too: democratic countries seem [better governed](https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-polisci-060820-060910) than autocracies, seem to [grow faster](https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/700936?mobileUi=0&), and foster more peaceful conduct [within](https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-death-and-life-of-state-repression-9780197655375?cc=us&lang=en&#) and [between](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/abs/suffragist-peace/3FC70A0BE87859F624E42984BEB0322B) them. On this page, you can find data, visualizations, and writing on how democracy has spread across countries, how it differs between them, and whether we are moving towards a more democratic world. ## Key Insights on Democracy ### The world has become much more democratic over the last two centuries Many more countries have become democracies over the last two hundred years. The chart shows — based on data from Regimes of the World (RoW) — that a much larger share of countries are now democracies. In the late 18th century, no country could be meaningfully characterized as a democracy. RoW classifies almost all of them as closed autocracies, in which citizens do not have the right to choose their political leaders through elections.1 Elections spread throughout the 19th century, but they were often marred by limitations. Many countries became electoral autocracies, in which political leaders were chosen through elections, but citizens lacked additional freedoms to make those elections free and fair. Only a … | Democracy | |
| 1rzaBWNe1jarUZIhWvqJOB3Om4RzgJ1rlYu20Ic7O5Og | ai-impact | article | {
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"text": "The third reason why it is difficult to take this prospect seriously is by failing to see that powerful AI could lead to very large changes. This is also understandable. It is difficult to form an idea of a future that is very different from our own time. There are two concepts that I find helpful in imagining a very different future with artificial intelligence. Let\u2019s look at both of them.",
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"text": "How to develop an idea of what the future of artificial intelligence might look like?",
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"text": "When thinking about the future of artificial intelligence, I find it helpful to consider two different concepts in particular: human-level AI, and transformative AI.",
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"text": " The first concept highlights the AI\u2019s capabilities and anchors them to a familiar benchmark, while transformative AI emphasizes the impact that this technology would have on the world.",
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"text": "From where we are today, much of this may sound like science fiction. It is therefore worth keeping in mind that the majority of surveyed AI experts ",
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"text": " there is a real chance that human-level artificial intelligence will be developed within the next decades, and some believe that it will exist much sooner.",
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"text": "One way to think about human-level artificial intelligence is to contrast it with the current state of AI technology. While today\u2019s AI systems often have capabilities similar to a particular, limited part of the human mind, a human-level AI would be a machine that is capable of carrying out the same ",
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"text": " of intellectual tasks that we humans are capable of.",
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"text": " It is a machine that would be \u201cable to learn to do anything that a human can do,\u201d as Norvig and Russell put it in their textbook on AI.",
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"text": "Taken together, the range of abilities that characterize intelligence gives humans the ability to solve problems and achieve a wide variety of goals. A human-level AI would therefore be a system that could solve all those problems that we humans can solve, and do the tasks that humans do today. Such a machine, or collective of machines, would be able to do the work of a translator, an accountant, an illustrator, a teacher, a therapist, a truck driver, or the work of a trader on the world\u2019s financial markets. Like us, it would also be able to do research and science, and to develop new technologies based on that.",
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"text": "The concept of human-level AI has some clear advantages. Using the familiarity of our own intelligence as a reference provides us with some clear guidance on how to imagine the capabilities of this technology.",
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"text": "However, it also has clear disadvantages. Anchoring the imagination of future AI systems to the familiar reality of human intelligence carries the risk that it obscures the very real differences between them.",
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"text": "Some of these differences are obvious. For example, AI systems will have the immense memory of computer systems, against which our own capacity to store information pales. Another obvious difference is the speed at which a machine can absorb and process information. But information storage and processing speed are not the only differences. The domains in which machines already outperform humans is steadily increasing: in chess, after matching the level of the best human players in the late 90s, AI systems ",
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"text": " superhuman levels more than a decade ago. In other games like Go or complex strategy games, this has happened more recently.",
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"text": "These differences mean that an AI that is at least as good as humans in every domain would overall be much more powerful than the human mind. Even the first \u201chuman-level AI\u201d would therefore be quite superhuman in many ways.",
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"text": "Human intelligence is also a bad metaphor for machine intelligence in other ways. The way we think is often very different from machines, and as a consequence the output of thinking machines can be very alien to us.",
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"text": "Most perplexing and most concerning are the strange and unexpected ways in which machine intelligence can fail. The AI-generated image of the horse below provides an example: on the one hand, AIs can do what no human can do \u2013 produce an image of anything, in any style (here photorealistic), in mere seconds \u2013 but on the other hand it can fail in ways that no human would fail.",
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"text": " No human would make the mistake of drawing a horse with five legs.",
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"text": "Imagining a powerful future AI as just another human would therefore likely be a mistake. The differences might be so large that it will be a misnomer to call such systems \u201chuman-level.\u201d",
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"text": "Transformative artificial intelligence is defined by the impact this technology would have on the world",
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"text": "In contrast, the concept of transformative AI is not based on a comparison with human intelligence. This has the advantage of sidestepping the problems that the comparisons with our own mind bring. But it has the disadvantage that it is harder to imagine what such a system would look like and be capable of. It requires more from us. It requires us to imagine a world with intelligent actors that are potentially very different from ourselves.",
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"text": "Transformative AI is not defined by any specific capabilities, but by the real-world impact that the AI would have. To qualify as transformative, researchers think of it as AI that is \u201cpowerful enough to bring us into a new, qualitatively different future.\u201d",
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"text": "In humanity\u2019s history, there have been two cases of such major transformations, the agricultural and the industrial revolutions.",
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"text": "Transformative AI becoming a reality would be an event on that scale. Like the arrival of agriculture 10,000 years ago, or the transition from hand- to machine-manufacturing, it would be an event that would change the world for billions of people around the globe and for the entire trajectory of ",
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"text": "Technologies that fundamentally change how a wide range of goods or services are produced are called \u2018general-purpose technologies\u2019. The two previous transformative events were caused by the discovery of two particularly significant general-purpose technologies: the change in food production as humanity transitioned from hunting and gathering to farming, and the rise of machine manufacturing in the industrial revolution. Based on the evidence and arguments presented in ",
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"text": " on AI development, I believe it is plausible that powerful AI could represent the introduction of a similarly significant general-purpose technology.",
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"text": "A future of human-level or transformative AI?",
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"text": "The two concepts are closely related, but they are not the same. The creation of a human-level AI would certainly have a transformative impact on our world. If the work of most humans could be carried out by an AI, the lives of millions of people would change.",
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"text": "The opposite, however, is not true: we might see transformative AI without developing human-level AI. Since the human mind is in many ways a poor metaphor for the intelligence of machines, we might plausibly develop transformative AI before we develop human-level AI. Depending on how this goes, this might mean that we will never see any machine intelligence for which human intelligence is a helpful comparison.",
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"text": "When and if AI systems might reach either of these levels is of course difficult to predict. In my ",
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"text": " on this question, I give an overview of what researchers in this field currently believe. Many AI experts believe there is a real chance that such systems will be developed within the next decades, and some believe that they will exist much sooner.",
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"text": "What is at stake as artificial intelligence becomes more powerful?",
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"text": "All major technological innovations lead to a range of positive and negative consequences. For AI, the spectrum of possible outcomes \u2013 from the most negative to the most positive \u2013 is extraordinarily wide.",
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"text": "That the use of AI technology can cause harm is clear, because it is already happening.",
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"text": "AI systems can cause harm when people use them maliciously. For example, when they are used in politically-motivated disinformation campaigns or to enable mass surveillance.",
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"text": "But AI systems can also cause unintended harm, when they act differently than intended or fail. For example, in the Netherlands the authorities used an AI system which falsely claimed that an estimated 26,000 parents made fraudulent claims for child care benefits. The false allegations led to hardship for many poor families, and also resulted in the resignation of the Dutch government in 2021.",
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"text": "As AI becomes more powerful, the possible negative impacts could become much larger. Many of these risks have rightfully received public attention: more powerful AI could lead to mass labor displacement, or extreme concentrations of power and wealth. In the hands of autocrats, it could empower totalitarianism through its suitability for mass surveillance and control.",
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"text": " of AI is another extreme risk. This is the concern that ",
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"text": " would be able to control a powerful AI system, even if the AI takes actions that harm us humans, or humanity as a whole. This risk is unfortunately receiving little attention from the wider public, but it is seen as an extremely large risk by many leading AI researchers.",
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"text": "How could an AI possibly escape human control and end up harming humans?",
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"text": "The risk is not that an AI becomes self-aware, develops bad intentions, and \u201cchooses\u201d to do this. The risk is that we try to instruct the AI to pursue some specific goal \u2013 even a very worthwhile one \u2013 and in the pursuit of that goal it ends up harming humans. It is about unintended consequences. The AI does what we told it to do, but not what we wanted it to do.",
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"text": "Can\u2019t we just tell the AI to not do those things? It is definitely possible to build an AI that avoids any particular problem we foresee, but it is hard to foresee ",
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"text": " the possible harmful unintended consequences. The alignment problem arises because of \u201cthe impossibility of defining true human purposes correctly and completely,\u201d as AI researcher Stuart Russell puts it.",
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"text": "Can\u2019t we then just switch off the AI? This might also not be possible. That is because a powerful AI would know two things: it faces a risk that humans could turn it off, and it can\u2019t achieve its goals once it has been turned off. As a consequence, the AI will pursue a very fundamental goal of ensuring that it won\u2019t be switched off. This is why, once we realize that an extremely intelligent AI is causing unintended harm in the pursuit of some specific goal, it might not be possible to turn it off or change what the system does.",
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"text": "This risk \u2013 that humanity might not be able to stay in control once AI becomes very powerful, and that this might lead to an extreme catastrophe \u2013 has been recognized right from the early days of AI research more than 70 years ago.",
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"text": " The very rapid development of AI in recent years has made a solution to this problem much more urgent.",
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"text": "I have tried to summarize some of the risks of AI, but a short article is not enough space to address all possible questions. Especially on the very worst risks of AI systems, and what we can do now to reduce them, I recommend reading the book ",
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"text": " by Brian Christian and Benjamin Hilton\u2019s article ",
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"text": "\u2018Preventing an AI-related catastrophe\u2019",
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"text": "If we manage to avoid these risks, transformative AI could also lead to very positive consequences. Advances in science and technology were crucial to ",
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"text": "the many positive developments",
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"text": " in humanity\u2019s history. If artificial ingenuity can augment our own, it could help us make progress on the many large problems we face: from cleaner energy, to the replacement of unpleasant work, to much better healthcare.",
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"text": "This extremely large contrast between the possible positives and negatives makes clear that the stakes are unusually high with this technology. Reducing the negative risks and solving the alignment problem could mean the difference between a healthy, flourishing, and wealthy future for humanity \u2013 and the destruction of the same.",
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"text": "How can we make sure that the development of AI goes well?",
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"text": "Making sure that the development of artificial intelligence goes well is not just one of the most crucial questions of our time, but likely one of the most crucial questions in human history. This needs public resources \u2013 public funding, public attention, and public engagement.",
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"text": "Currently, almost all resources that are dedicated to AI aim to speed up the development of this technology. Efforts that aim to increase the safety of AI systems, on the other hand, do not receive the resources they need. Researcher Toby Ord estimated that in 2020 between $10 to $50 million was spent on work to address the alignment problem.",
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"text": " Corporate AI investment in the same year was more than 2000-times larger, it ",
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"text": "summed up",
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"text": " to $153 billion.",
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"text": "Overviews are provided in Stuart Russell (2019) \u2013 Human Compatible (especially chapter 5) and Brian Christian\u2019s 2020 book ",
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"text": ". Christian presents the thinking of many leading AI researchers from the earliest days up to now and presents an excellent overview of this problem. It is also seen as a large risk by some of the leading private firms who work towards powerful AI \u2013 see OpenAI's article \"",
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"text": "\u201cIf a machine can think, it might think more intelligently than we do, and then where should we be? \u2026 [T]his new danger is much closer. If it comes at all it will almost certainly be within the next millennium. It is remote but not astronomically remote, and is certainly something which can give us anxiety. It is customary, in a talk or article on this subject, to offer a grain of comfort, in the form of a statement that some particularly human characteristic could never be imitated by a machine. \u2026 I cannot offer any such comfort, for I believe that no such bounds can be set.\u201d",
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"text": "Norbert Wiener is another pioneer who saw the alignment problem very early. One way he put it was \u201cIf we use, to achieve our purposes, a mechanical agency with whose operation we cannot interfere effectively \u2026 we had better be quite sure that the purpose put into the machine is the purpose which we really desire.\u201d quoted from Norbert Wiener (1960) \u2013 Some Moral and Technical Consequences of Automation: As machines learn they may develop unforeseen strategies at rates that baffle their programmers. In Science.",
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"text": " beat humans at no-limit Texas hold 'em poker. The AI system Cicero can strategize and use human language to win the strategy game Diplomacy. See: Meta Fundamental AI Research Diplomacy Team (FAIR), Anton Bakhtin, Noam Brown, Emily Dinan, Gabriele Farina, Colin Flaherty, Daniel Fried, et al. (2022) \u2013 \u2018Human-Level Play in the Game of Diplomacy by Combining Language Models with Strategic Reasoning\u2019. In ",
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"text": "The incentives are very high. As I emphasize below, this innovation has the potential to lead to very positive developments. In addition to the large social benefits there are also large incentives for those who develop it \u2013 the governments that can use it for their goals, the individuals who can use it to become more powerful and wealthy. Additionally, it is of scientific interest and might help us to understand our own mind and intelligence better. And lastly, even if we wanted to stop building powerful AIs, it is likely very hard to actually achieve it. It is very hard to coordinate across the whole world and agree to stop building more advanced AI \u2013 countries around the world would have to agree and then find ways to actually implement it.",
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"text": "This also poses a problem when we evaluate how the intelligence of a machine compares with the intelligence of humans. If intelligence was a general ability, a single capacity, then we could easily compare and evaluate it, but the fact that it is a range of skills makes it much more difficult to compare across machine and human intelligence. Tests for AI systems are therefore comprising a wide range of tasks. See for example Dan Hendrycks, Collin Burns, Steven Basart, Andy Zou, Mantas Mazeika, Dawn Song, Jacob Steinhardt (2020) \u2013\u00a0",
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1 | 2023-10-13 06:26:10 | 2022-12-15 05:00:00 | 2023-12-28 16:31:11 | listed | ALBJ4LsU9pT56T0znmJ5pPAg-p879caIZht0P67H_gRP5Gy66J10grB_l8rxNU7CEPXPFC1GV3K86aquyKll8g | Why should you care about the development of artificial intelligence? Think about what the alternative would look like. If you and the wider public do not get informed and engaged, then we leave it to a few entrepreneurs and engineers to decide how this technology will transform our world. That is the status quo. This small number of people at a few tech firms directly working on artificial intelligence (AI) do understand how extraordinarily powerful this technology is [becoming](https://ourworldindata.org/brief-history-of-ai). If the rest of society does not become engaged, then it will be this small elite who decides how this technology will change our lives. To change this status quo, I want to answer three questions in this article: Why is it hard to take the prospect of a world transformed by AI seriously? How can we imagine such a world? And what is at stake as this technology becomes more powerful? # Why is it hard to take the prospect of a world transformed by artificial intelligence seriously? In some way, it should be obvious how technology can fundamentally transform the world. We just have to look at how much the world has already changed. If you could invite a family of hunter-gatherers from 20,000 years ago on your next flight, they would be pretty surprised. Technology has changed our world already, so we should expect that it can happen again. But while we have seen the world transform before, we have seen these transformations play out over the course of generations. What is different now is how very rapid these technological changes have become. In the past, the technologies that our ancestors used in their childhood were still central to their lives in their old age. This has not been the case anymore for recent generations. Instead, it has [become common](https://ourworldindata.org/technology-long-run) that technologies unimaginable in one's youth become ordinary in later life. This is the first reason we might not take the prospect seriously: it is easy to underestimate the speed at wh… | Artificial intelligence is transforming our world — it is on all of us to make sure that it goes well | |
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1 | 2024-06-06 10:16:41 | 2024-06-18 07:00:16 | 2024-06-10 10:13:20 | unlisted | ALBJ4LuDsghb3t7vOkPo2zJSRKcZ-8QO-y594qlKaYp7ODnQQHfSun55BTeeqAoNYENUEucWE8FWWKAKWOw1jA | <Image filename="coal-europe-desktop.png"/> Coal dominated Europe's electricity mix over the 20th century, but it is quickly dying in many countries in the 21st. The chart shows the share of electricity that comes from coal for a range of countries in Western Europe. The data comes from [Ember](https://ember-climate.org/). Transitioning away from coal has helped [reduce carbon emissions](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/co2?stackMode=relative&time=2000..latest&facet=none&country=GBR~IRL~ESP~PRT~GRC~DNK~NLD~DEU&Gas+or+Warming=CO%E2%82%82&Accounting=Territorial&Fuel+or+Land+Use+Change=All+fossil+emissions&Count=Per+country) and [local air pollutants](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/air-pollution?time=1990..latest&facet=entity&uniformYAxis=0&country=GBR~IRL~ESP~DNK~DEU~GRC~NLD~PRT~ITA&Pollutant=Nitrogen+oxides+%28NOx%29&Sector=From+all+sectors+%28Total%29&Per+capita=false). [Explore the data](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-electricity-coal) → | Coal power is dying in Western Europe | |
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1 | 2023-06-20 14:39:34 | 2019-09-20 09:55:38 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LskLVaIRTXvzHKE4cTEVJPjYFAuaPwqrYs7GI0OANNm1AQJYRemr_0ey0l2qaZ_SRLvg6dSButDO4rTUg | 830 women die from pregnancy-related causes every day.1 In 2015, 302,700 women in the world [died as a result](https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-women-die-in-childbirth) of pregnancy or childbirth. For many aspects of global development, it is true that the world made a lot of progress in the past and we know that we can make a lot of progress still. We’ve shown this before for child mortality and it is true for maternal health too: maternal health is much better than in the past; it’s still awful today; and we can do much better. In the visualization here we compare three scenarios: * **How many mothers would die today if we still had the very poor health of the past?** Even the countries with the best maternal health today had very high maternal mortality rates in the past. In Sweden and Finland in 1800, for example, around [900 mothers died](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/maternal-mortality?tab=chart&country=FIN~SWE) for every 100,000 live births [nearly 1-in-100].2 In today’s world where [140 million](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-number-of-births-by-world-region) women give birth each year this would mean that 1.26 million would die. * **The world today**: the actual [number of women who died](https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-women-die-in-childbirth) from pregnancy-related causes in 2015 was 302,700. * **If all regions had the health of today’s best-off countries**: Today the world region with the lowest maternal mortality is the European Union, where [8 women die per 100,000](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/maternal-mortality?tab=chart&country=~European+Union) live births. In today’s world where [140 million](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-number-of-births-by-world-region) women give birth each year, if all countries had this level of maternal mortality, 11,000 would die.3 <Image filename="how-many-women-could-we-save -from-dying-in-pregnancy-or-childbirth.png"/> We can see how much global maternal health has improved: if we still had the living standards of 1800, aro… | If we can make maternal deaths as rare as they are in the healthiest countries, we can save almost 300,000 mothers each year | |
| 1rEhPkFIeAvIQeOHj69HHlHLd1MygsBX7jb79MnpFJmI | owid-data-collection-inequality-and-poverty | article | {
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"excerpt": "Explore a wide range of indicators on inequality and poverty and compare sources.",
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1 | 2023-06-27 21:06:25 | 2023-07-06 15:03:13 | 2024-02-02 19:18:21 | listed | ALBJ4Lsksiwgi7dsjLLNVO1TYlW-fQZvjyiMckvxCHyosCPRBZGcaULAcI2Gzx1H7qEWDg7rHhD31MqT1JlJcQ | At Our World in Data, we are building an extensive dataset of inequality and poverty indicators, pulling together multiple sources to provide as comprehensive a view as possible. To make it easier to navigate this wide range of data, below we provide links to a set of Data Explorers that allow you to explore a very detailed range of indicators and compare data across sources. The explorers draw from three prominent sources, each offering a global perspective on poverty and inequality: the [World Bank Poverty and Inequality Platform](https://pip.worldbank.org/home), the [Luxembourg Income Study](https://www.lisdatacenter.org/), and the [World Inequality Database](https://wid.world/). Information about the definitions and methods behind the data from each of these sources is provided at the bottom of this page. The detailed data contained in the explorers collected below is intended for experts or researchers who are already quite familiar with the measures and concepts involved. Users with a more general interest are likely to benefit more from the Data Explorers shown in our topic pages on [Inequality](https://ourworldindata.org/economic-inequality#explore-data-on-economic-inequality) and [Poverty](https://ourworldindata.org/poverty#explore-data-on-poverty). These provide an overview of the key indicators from this collection. --- ## Poverty indicators: * [Poverty Data Explorer: World Bank PIP data](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/poverty-wb) * [Poverty Data Explorer: World Bank PIP data - 2011 vs. 2017 prices](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/poverty-explorer-2011-vs-2017-ppp) * [Poverty Data Explorer: Luxembourg Income Study data](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/poverty-lis) * [Poverty Data Explorer: Compare World Bank and LIS data](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/poverty-comparison) ## Inequality indicators: * [Inequality Data Explorer: World Bank PIP data](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/inequality-wb) * [Inequality Data Explorer: Luxembourg Income Study data](https://ourworldin… | OWID Data Collection: Inequality and Poverty | |
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1 | 2023-11-30 06:50:48 | 2016-06-13 09:58:00 | 2023-12-28 16:31:11 | listed | ALBJ4LtTgSZgqtMTAnYygsW8SLdIHaug3g5MR3KIx-Nw8v383EEvQb2cTruTmVbEg2e_p16pR-b34x5M7bUecA | You can use any of the interactive visualizations from Our World in Data in your articles. This is possible because everything is permissively licensed (under [CC-BY-SA](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)) and because there is an easy embed feature on every chart. Here are two recent examples of articles that embed OWID visualizations: * [The Brazilian website ](http://ofuturodascoisas.com/projecao-da-populacao-pelo-nivel-educacional-ate-2100/)_[o futuro das coisas](http://ofuturodascoisas.com/projecao-da-populacao-pelo-nivel-educacional-ate-2100/)_ [in an article about the future of global education](http://ofuturodascoisas.com/projecao-da-populacao-pelo-nivel-educacional-ate-2100/). * [Vox.com in an article on the decline of global malaria deaths on World Malaria Day](http://www.vox.com/2016/4/25/11488196/world-malaria-day). ## An example For example let's assume you want to write about fertility and on the [fertility](https://ourworldindata.org/fertility/) page you find this map that you want to embed in your own article: <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-per-woman-un"/> ## All you have to do to embed it in your article At the bottom right of the chart you click the little icon and then chose the option </>** Embed**. You will see a box popping up with the following bit of text: <iframe src="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-per-woman-un" width="100%" height="600px"></iframe> Now you just take this bit of html code and place it in the text of your own article. An iframe is used to display a website within another website (_w3schools_ has [more info on iframes](http://www.w3schools.com/html/html_iframe.asp).) Similar to when you embed a YouTube video in your article, your article now embeds an Our World in Data visualization. ## Change the map focus, change the year We try to make the embed tool as useful as possible: For example, you can focus on Africa instead of World in the map above; and you can move the time slider to 2015 (you will get [this](http… | How to embed Our World in Data visualizations in your article | |
| 1qws9Gt7OyX0J8T0yz_PIWDDBP4q9hu3WXpUGVXaSJ_g | reduction-of-cases-and-deaths-of-vaccine-preventable-diseases-in-the-us | article | {
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1 | 2023-11-30 05:57:25 | 2015-03-19 14:38:33 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LtrhEfgvouZDYHX5z4f4XEsmLnJxtMYBIxAQvHXFHyTXV8v_6lLGJN0fLZzhbkqkISmZu8Qb4asmTsJwA | The visualization here shows the reduction in cases and deaths from vaccine-preventable diseases in the United States after the introduction of each vaccine. This data was published by Roush and Murphy (2007).1 For several diseases, the US has achieved a 100% reduction of cases and deaths and for many other diseases, the reduction is often very substantial as well. <Image filename="Vaccine_Reduction-of-Cases-and-Deaths.png" alt=""/> Roush and Murphy (2007) – Historical comparisons of morbidity and mortality for vaccine-preventable diseases in the United States. In the Journal of the American Medical Association, 298, 18, 2155–2163. [here](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000199) | Reduction of cases and deaths of vaccine-preventable diseases in the US | |
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"text": " so that one liter of wine contains 0.12 liters of pure alcohol. So, a value of 6 liters of pure alcohol per person per year is equivalent to 50 liters of wine. Or, 67 standard bottles of wine (which have a volume of 0.75 liters).",
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"text": "As the map shows, the average per capita alcohol consumption varies widely globally.",
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"text": "We see large geographical differences: Alcohol consumption across North Africa and the Middle East is particularly low\u00a0\u2014 in many countries, close to zero. At the upper end of the scale, alcohol intake across Europe is higher.",
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"text": "Share of adults who drink alcohol",
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"text": "This interactive map shows the share of adults who drink alcohol. This is given as the share of adults aged 15 years and older who have drunk alcohol within the previous year.",
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"text": "In many countries, the majority of adults drink some alcohol. Across Europe, for example, more than two-thirds do in most countries.",
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"text": "Again, the prevalence of drinking across North Africa and the Middle East is notably lower than elsewhere. Typically, 5 to 10 percent of adults across these regions drank in the preceding year, and in a number of countries, this was below 5 percent.",
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"text": "Alcohol consumption by sex",
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"text": "When we look at gender differences, we see that in all countries, men have a higher alcohol consumption than women.",
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"text": "In a related chart, you can see the ",
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"text": "share who drink alcohol by gender and age group in the UK",
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"text": ".",
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"text": "Alcohol consumption \u2013 whilst a risk factor for a number of health outcomes \u2013 typically has the greatest negative impacts when consumed within heavy sessions.",
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"text": "This pattern of drinking is often termed 'binging,' where individuals consume large amounts of alcohol within a single session versus small quantities more frequently.",
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"text": "Heavy episodic drinking is defined as the proportion of adult drinkers who have had at least 60 grams or more of pure alcohol on at least one occasion in the past 30 days. An intake of 60 grams of pure alcohol is approximately equal to 6 ",
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"text": "standard alcoholic drinks",
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"text": "The map shows heavy drinkers \u2013 those who had an episode of heavy drinking in the previous 30 days \u2013 as a share of total drinkers (i.e., those who have drunk less than one alcoholic drink in the last 12 months are excluded).",
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"text": "The comparison of this map with the previous maps makes clear that heavy drinking is not necessarily most common in the same countries where alcohol consumption is most common.",
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"text": "Data on the prevalence of binge drinking by age and gender in the UK can be found ",
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"text": ", and trends in heavy and binge drinking in the USA can be found ",
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"text": "Share of adults who don't drink alcohol",
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"text": "Global trends on alcohol abstinence show a mirror image of drinking prevalence data. This is shown in the charts as the share of adults who had not drunk in the prior year and those who have never drunk alcohol.",
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"text": "Here, we see particularly high levels of alcohol abstinence across North Africa and the Middle East. In most countries in this region, the majority of adults have never drunk alcohol.",
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"text": "Data on the share who don't drink alcohol by gender and age group in the UK is available ",
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"text": ".",
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"text": "Historical perspective on alcohol consumption",
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"text": "Total alcohol consumption over the long-run",
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"text": "The chart shows alcohol consumption since 1890 in a number of countries.",
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"text": "A century ago, some countries had much higher levels of alcohol consumption. In France in the 1920s, the average was 22.1 liters of pure alcohol per person per year. This equals 184 one-liter wine bottles per person per year.",
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"text": " Note that in contrast to the modern statistics that are expressed in alcohol consumption per person older than 15 years, this includes children as well \u2013 the average alcohol consumption per adult was, therefore, even higher.",
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"text": "This chart shows the change in consumption of alcoholic beverages.",
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"text": "By default, the data for France is shown \u2013 in recent decades, here, the share of beer consumption increased to make up around a fifth of alcohol consumption in France.",
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"text": "With the change country feature, it is possible to view the same data for other countries. Sweden, for example, increased the share of wine consumption and, therefore, reduced the share of spirits.",
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"text": "Alcohol consumption in the United States since 1850",
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"text": "Long-run data on alcohol consumption from the United States gives us one perspective of drinking since 1850. In the chart, we see the average consumption (in liters of ethanol) of different beverage types per person in the USA since the mid-nineteenth century.",
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"text": "Over this long time period, we see that per capita drinking quantities have been relatively constant\u00a0\u2014 typically averaging around 8 to 9 liters per year. Over the period 1920-1933,\u00a0there was a ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages in the United States (known as the 'National Alcohol Prohibition'). Since the statistics here reflect reported sales and consumption statistics, they assume zero consumption of alcohol over this time. However, there is evidence that alcohol consumption continued through the black market and illegal sales, particularly in the sales of spirits. It's estimated that at the beginning of Prohibition, alcohol consumption decreased to approximately 30 percent of pre-prohibition levels but slowly increased to 60-70 percent by the end of the period.",
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"text": "As we see, following prohibition, levels of alcohol consumption returned to similar levels as in the pre-prohibition period.",
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"text": "The charts show global consumption of beer, first in terms of beer as a share of total alcohol consumption, and then the estimated average consumption per person.",
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"text": "Both are measured in terms of pure alcohol/ethanol intake rather than the total quantity of the beverage. Beer contains around 5% of pure alcohol per volume",
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"text": " so that one liter of beer contains 0.05 liters of pure alcohol. This means that 5 liters of pure alcohol equals 100 liters of beer.",
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"text": "The charts show global consumption of wine, first in terms of wine as a share of total alcohol consumption, and then the estimated average consumption per person.",
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"text": "Both are measured in terms of pure alcohol/ethanol intake rather than the total quantity of the beverage. Wine contains around 12% pure alcohol per volume, so that one liter of wine contains 0.12 liters of pure alcohol.",
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"text": "The charts show global consumption of spirits, which are distilled alcoholic drinks, including gin, rum, whisky, tequila, and vodka.",
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"text": "The first map shows this in terms of spirits as a share of total alcohol consumption. In many Asian countries, spirits account for most of total alcohol consumption.",
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"text": "The second map shows the estimated average consumption per person.",
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"text": "Both are measured in terms of pure alcohol/ethanol intake rather than the total quantity of the beverage.",
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"text": "Expenditures on alcohol and alcohol consumption by income",
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"text": "Does alcohol consumption increase as countries get richer?",
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"text": "In the chart, we see the relationship between average per capita alcohol consumption \u2013 in liters of pure alcohol per year \u2013 versus gross domestic product (GDP) per capita across countries.",
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"text": "When we look at national averages in this way, there is no distinct relationship between income and alcohol consumption. As shown by clusters of countries (for example, Middle Eastern countries with low alcohol intake but high GDP per capita), we tend to see strong cultural patterns that tend to alter the standard income-consumption relationship we may expect.",
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"text": "However, when we look at consumption data within given countries, we sometimes do see a clear income correlation. Taking 2016 data in the UK as an example, we see that people within higher income brackets tend to drink more frequently. This correlation is also likely to be influenced by other lifestyle determinants and habits; the UK ONS also reports that when grouped by education status, those with a university tend to drink more in total and more frequently than those of lower education status. There are also differences when grouped by profession: individuals in managerial or professional positions tend to drink more frequently than those in intermediate or manual labor roles.",
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"text": "We also find correlates in drinking\u00a0",
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"text": "patterns",
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"text": " when we look at groupings of income, education or work status. Although those in lower income or educational status groups often drink less overall, they are more likely to have lower-frequency, higher-intensity drinking patterns. Overall, these groups drink less, but a higher percentage will drink heavily when they do.",
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"text": "This interactive chart shows the average share of household expenditure that is spent on alcohol.",
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"text": "Data on alcohol expenditure is typically limited to North America, Europe, and Oceania.",
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"text": "This shows the expenditure on alcohol in the United States, differentiated by where the alcohol has been purchased and consumed.",
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"text": "Alcohol is responsible for many premature deaths each year",
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"text": "Alcohol is one of the world's largest risk factors for premature death.",
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"text": "The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), in its ",
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"text": "Global Burden of Disease",
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"text": " study, provides estimates of the number of deaths attributed to the range of risk factors.",
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"text": " In the visualization, we see the number of deaths per year attributed to each risk factor. This chart is shown for the global total but can be explored for any country or region using the \"Change country or region\" toggle.",
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"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-of-deaths-by-risk-factor",
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"text": "Alcohol consumption is a known risk factor for a number of health conditions, and potential mortality cases.\u00a0Alcohol consumption has a causal impact on more than 200 health conditions (diseases and injuries).",
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"text": "In the chart, we see estimates of the alcohol-attributable fraction (AAF), which is the proportion of deaths that are caused or exacerbated by alcohol (i.e., that proportion that would disappear if alcohol consumption was removed). We see that the proportion of deaths attributed to alcohol consumption is lower in North Africa and the Middle East and much higher in Eastern Europe.",
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1 | 2023-11-10 14:26:29 | 2022-01-01 14:31:00 | 2024-02-29 15:40:42 | unlisted | ALBJ4LuZf9-Jagc8coa-jMoFbA-QONXgC_hFiNI2OHQ6VjKfmnpBy-EmsvzmP2PvZL33byCAhCD9rkFAg2pFqA | Alcohol has historically, and continues to, hold an important role in social engagement and bonding for many. Social drinking or moderate alcohol consumption for many is pleasurable. However, alcohol consumption – especially in excess – is linked to a number of negative outcomes: as a risk factor for diseases and health impacts, crime, road incidents, and, for some, alcohol dependence. This topic page looks at the data on global patterns of alcohol consumption, patterns of drinking, beverage types, the prevalence of alcoholism, and consequences, including crime, mortality, and road incidents. **Related topics:** Data on other drug use can be found on our full topic page [here](https://ourworldindata.org/substance-use). Drug use disorders are often classified within the same category as mental health disorders — research and data on mental health can be found on our topic page [here](https://ourworldindata.org/mental-health). **Support for alcohol dependency** At the end of this topic page, you will [find additional resources](https://ourworldindata.org/alcohol-consumption#further-resources-guidance) and guidance if you, or someone you know, needs support in dealing with alcohol dependency. **[See all interactive charts on Alcohol Consumption ↓](#all-charts)** # Alcohol consumption across the world today This interactive map shows the annual average alcohol consumption of alcohol, expressed per person aged 15 years or older. To account for the differences in alcohol content of different alcoholic drinks (e.g., beer, wine, spirits), this is reported in liters of pure alcohol per year. To make this average more understandable, we can express it in bottles of wine. Wine contains around 12% pure alcohol per volume1 so that one liter of wine contains 0.12 liters of pure alcohol. So, a value of 6 liters of pure alcohol per person per year is equivalent to 50 bottles of wine per year. As the map shows, the average per capita alcohol consumption varies widely globally. We see large geographical differences: A… | Alcohol Consumption | |
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"title": "Indoor Air Pollution",
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"excerpt": "Indoor air pollution \u2013 caused by the burning of firewood, crop waste, and dung for cooking and heating \u2013 is a major health risk of the world's poorest.",
"dateline": "This article was first published in November 2014; last revised in March 2024.",
"subtitle": "Indoor air pollution \u2013 caused by the burning of firewood, crop waste, and dung for cooking and heating \u2013 is a major health risk for the world's poorest.",
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"featured-image": "indoor-air-pollution-thumbnail.png"
} |
1 | 2023-11-10 15:33:57 | 2022-01-01 15:34:59 | 2024-03-15 12:37:53 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lurjgfy4GKbQOAfClIJ-pLO_f4-VBbPD0B3wK5CleJywL9tcHqc3fCyXhH8UudPRVcoSCC5XF29fGf2ZA | Indoor air pollution is caused by burning solid fuel sources – such as firewood, crop waste, and dung – for cooking and heating. The burning of such fuels, particularly in poor households, results in air pollution that leads to respiratory diseases which can result in premature death. The WHO calls indoor air pollution "the world's largest single environmental health risk."1 **Related topics** ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1I8h6_nfCxMv5mPSc0NXekQPyX2pjmuZeTjqDMAnq2to/edit ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1fYmFTD2zdvt3nPyEvOc0x7wdEylg_LC-JwoXGjvIfTs/edit ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1IxPaKLVC-rm0doT1JYDB2uFGR2TKNQ7Bq3d6riHCBuU/edit ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1GRYE-mYiSEnes8rXjK6dCNi4KULLJB8KW03AOPci-b8/edit **[See all interactive charts on indoor air pollution ↓](#all-charts)** --- # Indoor air pollution is one of the leading risk factors for premature death --- ## Indoor air pollution is a leading risk factor for premature death in poor countries Indoor air pollution is one of the world's largest environmental problems – particularly for the [poorest in the world](https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty) who often do not have access to clean fuels for cooking. The _Global Burden of Disease_ is a major global study on the causes and risk factors for death and disease published in the medical journal _The Lancet_.2 These estimates of the annual number of deaths attributed to a wide range of risk factors are shown here. This chart is shown for the global total, but can be explored for any country or region using the "change country" toggle. Indoor air pollution is a risk factor for several of the world's leading causes of death, including heart disease, pneumonia, stroke, diabetes and lung cancer.3 In the chart we see that it is one of the leading risk factors for death globally. According to the _Global Burden of Disease_ study 2,313,991 deaths were attributed to indoor pollution … | Indoor Air Pollution | |
| 1qmt0yBlkmJLezO19LXUQ2t7GmtSlIDoanX6FjpCDyUk | financing-education | article | {
"toc": [
{
"slug": "when-did-the-provision-of-education-first-become-a-public-policy-priority",
"text": "When did the provision of education first become a public policy priority?",
"title": "When did the provision of education first become a public policy priority?",
"supertitle": "",
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},
{
"slug": "how-did-the-us-finance-the-expansion-of-public-education",
"text": "How did the US finance the expansion of public education?",
"title": "How did the US finance the expansion of public education?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "how-did-france-finance-the-expansion-of-public-education",
"text": "How did France finance the expansion of public education?",
"title": "How did France finance the expansion of public education?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "in-the-us-growth-in-education-expenditure-was-characterized-by-growth-specifically-in-the-public-sector",
"text": "In the US growth in education expenditure was characterized by growth specifically in the public sector",
"title": "In the US growth in education expenditure was characterized by growth specifically in the public sector",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "when-did-the-expansion-of-basic-education-become-a-global-phenomenon",
"text": "When did the expansion of basic education become a global phenomenon?",
"title": "When did the expansion of basic education become a global phenomenon?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "education-inequality-is-falling-around-the-world",
"text": "Education inequality is falling around the world",
"title": "Education inequality is falling around the world",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "education-inequality-can-decline-rapidly-across-all-levels-of-education-south-korea-is-an-example",
"text": "Education inequality can decline rapidly across all levels of education \u2013 South Korea is an example",
"title": "Education inequality can decline rapidly across all levels of education \u2013 South Korea is an example",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "is-funding-for-education-expanding",
"text": "Is funding for education expanding?",
"title": "Is funding for education expanding?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "is-additional-funding-for-education-taking-resources-from-other-sectors",
"text": "Is additional funding for education taking resources from other sectors?",
"title": "Is additional funding for education taking resources from other sectors?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "european-countries-tend-to-assign-a-lower-share-of-public-budgets-to-education-relative-to-the-amount-of-their-income-that-is-devoted-to-education",
"text": "European countries tend to assign a lower share of public budgets to education, relative to the amount of their income that is devoted to education",
"title": "European countries tend to assign a lower share of public budgets to education, relative to the amount of their income that is devoted to education",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "in-european-countries-the-weight-of-primary-education-within-total-education-spending-is-lower-than-in-other-countries",
"text": "In European countries the weight of primary education within total education spending is lower than in other countries",
"title": "In European countries the weight of primary education within total education spending is lower than in other countries",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "in-high-income-countries-households-shoulder-a-larger-share-of-education-expenditures-at-higher-education-levels-than-at-lower-levels-but-in-low-income-countries-this-is-not-the-case",
"text": "In high-income countries, households shoulder a larger share of education expenditures at higher education levels than at lower levels \u2013 but in low-income countries, this is not the case",
"title": "In high-income countries, households shoulder a larger share of education expenditures at higher education levels than at lower levels \u2013 but in low-income countries, this is not the case",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "primary-education-continues-to-be-publicly-funded-in-industrialized-countries",
"text": "Primary education continues to be publicly funded in industrialized countries",
"title": "Primary education continues to be publicly funded in industrialized countries",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "publicly-funded-pre-primary-education-is-more-strongly-developed-in-the-european-countries-of-the-oecd",
"text": "Publicly funded pre-primary education is more strongly developed in the European countries of the OECD",
"title": "Publicly funded pre-primary education is more strongly developed in the European countries of the OECD",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "where-does-funding-for-education-go-to",
"text": "Where does funding for education go to?",
"title": "Where does funding for education go to?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "what-drives-current-expenditure-on-education",
"text": "What drives current expenditure on education?",
"title": "What drives current expenditure on education?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "education-financing-in-developing-countries-has-been-bolstered-by-development-assistance",
"text": "Education financing in developing countries has been bolstered by development assistance",
"title": "Education financing in developing countries has been bolstered by development assistance",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "the-share-of-development-assistance-for-education-going-to-sub-saharan-africa-has-decreased",
"text": "The share of development assistance for education going to Sub-saharan Africa has decreased",
"title": "The share of development assistance for education going to Sub-saharan Africa has decreased",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "development-assistance-priorities-have-the-ability-to-increase-or-reduce-expenditure-inequalities",
"text": "Development assistance priorities have the ability to increase or reduce expenditure inequalities",
"title": "Development assistance priorities have the ability to increase or reduce expenditure inequalities",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "the-big-picture",
"text": "The big picture",
"title": "The big picture",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "why-do-governments-finance-education",
"text": "Why do governments finance education?",
"title": "Why do governments finance education?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": true
},
{
"slug": "do-countries-that-spend-more-public-resources-on-education-tend-to-have-better-education-outcomes",
"text": "Do countries that spend more public resources on education tend to have better education outcomes?",
"title": "Do countries that spend more public resources on education tend to have better education outcomes?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": true
},
{
"slug": "does-cross-country-variation-in-government-education-expenditure-explain-cross-country-differences-in-education-outcomes",
"text": "Does cross-country variation in government education expenditure explain cross-country differences in education outcomes?",
"title": "Does cross-country variation in government education expenditure explain cross-country differences in education outcomes?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": true
},
{
"slug": "school-inputs",
"text": "School inputs",
"title": "School inputs",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "each-education-system-is-different-but-improving-teacher-quality-is-often-more-effective-in-improving-learning-outcomes-than-increasing-the-number-of-teachers-per-pupil",
"text": "Each education system is different, but improving teacher quality is often more effective in improving learning outcomes than increasing the number of teachers per pupil",
"title": "Each education system is different, but improving teacher quality is often more effective in improving learning outcomes than increasing the number of teachers per pupil",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": true
},
{
"slug": "remedial-teaching-can-yield-substantial-improvements-in-learning-outcomes",
"text": "Remedial teaching can yield substantial improvements in learning outcomes",
"title": "Remedial teaching can yield substantial improvements in learning outcomes",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": true
},
{
"slug": "are-pay-for-performance-teacher-contracts-an-effective-instrument-to-improve-learning-outcomes",
"text": "Are pay-for-performance teacher contracts an effective instrument to improve learning outcomes?",
"title": "Are pay-for-performance teacher contracts an effective instrument to improve learning outcomes?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": true
},
{
"slug": "household-inputs",
"text": "Household inputs",
"title": "Household inputs",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": false
},
{
"slug": "school-attendance-and-student-effort-are-responsive-to-incentives",
"text": "School attendance and student effort are responsive to incentives",
"title": "School attendance and student effort are responsive to incentives",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": true
},
{
"slug": "targeting-health-problems-can-be-a-particularly-cost-effective-way-of-increasing-school-attendance",
"text": "Targeting health problems can be a particularly cost-effective way of increasing school attendance",
"title": "Targeting health problems can be a particularly cost-effective way of increasing school attendance",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": true
},
{
"slug": "how-important-are-pre-school-investments",
"text": "How important are pre-school investments?",
"title": "How important are pre-school investments?",
"supertitle": "",
"isSubheading": true
}
],
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"text": "In most countries basic education is nowadays perceived not only as a right, but also as a duty \u2013 governments are typically expected to ensure access to basic education, while citizens are often required by law to attain education up to a certain basic level.",
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"text": "This was not always the case: the advancement of these ideas began in the mid-19th century, when most of today\u2019s industrialized countries started expanding primary education, mainly through public finances and government intervention. Data from this early period shows that government funds to finance the expansion of education came from a number of different sources, but taxes at the local level played a crucial role. The historical role of local funding for public schools is important to help us understand changes \u2013 or persistence \u2013 in regional inequalities.",
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"text": "The second half of the 20th century marked the beginning of education expansion as a global phenomenon. Available data shows that by 1990 government spending on education as a share of national income in many developing countries was already close to the average observed in developed countries.",
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"text": "This global education expansion in the 20th century resulted in a historical reduction in education inequality across the globe: in the period 1960-2010 education inequality went down every year, for all age groups and in all world regions. Recent estimates of education inequality across age groups suggest that further reductions in schooling inequality are still to be expected within developing countries.",
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"text": "Recent cross-country data from UNESCO tells us that the world is expanding government funding for education today, and these additional public funds for education are not necessarily at the expense of other government sectors. Yet behind these broad global trends, there is substantial cross-country \u2013\u00a0and cross-regional \u2013 heterogeneity. In high-income countries, for instance, households shoulder a larger share of education expenditures at higher education levels than at lower levels \u2013 but in low-income countries, this is not the case.",
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"text": "Following the agreement of the Millennium Development Goals, the first decade of the 21st century saw an important increase in international financial flows under the umbrella of development assistance. Recent estimates show that development assistance for education has stopped growing since 2010, with notable aggregate reductions in flows going to primary education. These changes in the prioritization of development assistance for education across levels and regions can have potentially large distributional effects, particularly within low-income countries that depend substantially on this source of funding for basic education.",
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"url": "#note-4",
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"text": "When analyzing correlates, determinants and consequences of education consumption, the macro data indicates that national expenditure on education does not explain well cross-country differences in learning outcomes. This suggests that for any given level of expenditure, the output achieved depends crucially on the mix of many inputs.",
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"text": "Available evidence specifically on the importance of school inputs to produce education, suggests that learning outcomes may be more sensitive to improvements in the quality of teachers, than to improvements in class sizes. Regarding household inputs, the recent experimental evidence suggests that interventions that increase the benefits of attending school (e.g. conditional cash transfers) are particularly likely to increase student time in school; and that those that incentivize academic effort (e.g. scholarships) are likely to improve learning outcomes.",
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"text": "Policy experiments have also shown that preschool investment in demand-side inputs leads to large positive impacts on education \u2013 and other important outcomes later in life. The environment that children are exposed to early in life, plays a crucial role in shaping their abilities, behavior, and talents.",
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"text": "Historical perspective on financing education",
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"text": "When did the provision of education first become a public policy priority?",
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"text": "Governments around the world are nowadays widely perceived to be responsible for ensuring the provision of accessible quality education. This is a recent social achievement. The advancement of the idea to provide education for more and more children only began in the mid-19th century, when most of today\u2019s industrialized countries started expanding primary education.",
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"text": "The following visualization, plotting public expenditure on education as a share of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for a number of early-industrialized countries, shows that this expansion took place mainly through public funding. ",
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"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/global-education",
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"text": "Our topic page on global education",
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"text": " provides details regarding how this expansion in funding materialized in better education outcomes for these countries.",
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"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/total-government-expenditure-on-education-gdp?tab=chart&country=USA~GBR~ESP~FRA~DEU~NOR~SWE",
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"text": "How did the US finance the expansion of public education?",
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"text": "Public schools in the US educate more than 90% of all children enrolled in elementary and secondary schools.",
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"text": "This is the result of a process of education expansion that relied heavily on public funding, particularly from local governments. The visualization shows the sources of revenues for public schools in the US over the last 120 years.",
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"text": "As can be seen, states and localities are \u2013 and have always been \u2013 the main sources of funding for public primary education in the US. In fact, we observe three broad periods in this graph: there is first a period of stable revenues until 1920, then a period of sharp growth and decline during the interwar years, and then a period of substantial growth since the Second World War, slowing down in the 1970s. In all these periods, federal funding was always very small.",
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"text": "Disaggregated data from the last couple of decades gives further insights into the specific sources of local revenues for schools in the US: the largest part comes from property taxes (about 80% of local revenues came from property taxes in 2013), while only a very small part comes from fees and donations (private funding for public schools, which is considered a local revenue, amounted to less than 2% of total public school revenues in 2013). This heavily decentralized system relying on property taxes has the potential to create large inequalities in education since public schools in affluent urban areas are able to raise more funding from local revenues. Indeed, a significant part of the debate on education inequalities in the US today focuses on the importance of increasing progressive federal spending to reduce inequalities in public school funding.",
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"text": "The case of the US above shows that funding for public schools has been historically a responsibility of local governments. In other countries, such as France, the expansion of public education also took place initially with resources from local governments, but relatively quickly the fiscal burden was shifted to the national level. In France, this transition was associated with a sharp jump towards universal access and a concomitant reduction in regional inequalities.",
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"text": "The following visualization from Lindert (2004)",
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"text": " provides evidence of the French experience. As we can see there are three distinct periods: education spending was initially low and mainly private, then in 1833 funding began growing with local resources after the introduction of a law liberating communes to raise more local taxes for schools, and finally in 1881 the national government took over most of the financial responsibility after the introduction of a new law that abolished all fees and tuition charges in public elementary schools. In the source book, Lindert (2004) provides further evidence of how this transition towards centrally funded public education reduced north-south inequalities in France.",
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"alt": "Lindert (2004) France_EarlyEducation_Breakdown",
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"text": "Sources of funds for France\u2019s public primary schools, 1820\u20131913 \u2013\u00a0Figure 5.5 in Lindert (2004)",
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"text": "In the US growth in education expenditure was characterized by growth specifically in the public sector",
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"text": "A comparison of expenditure between public and private education institutions is helpful to contextualize the role the public sector played in the process of education expansion in industrialized countries. The following graph does this using data from the National Center for Education Statistics in the US.",
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"text": "It shows that during the years 1950-1970 \u2013 a period of substantial growth in education expenditure in the US \u2013 expenditure grew ",
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"text": "specifically",
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"text": " in the public sector.",
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"text": "When did the expansion of basic education become a global phenomenon?",
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"text": "The second half of the 20th century marked the beginning of education expansion as a global phenomenon. The visualization shows government expenditure on education as a share of national income for a selection of low and middle-income countries, together with the corresponding average for high-income countries, for more than the last half-century. As can be seen, spending on education in many developing countries has become similar to the average observed in developed countries in recent decades.",
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"text": "It is important to point out that the remark above makes reference to convergence in expenditure relative to ",
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"text": ". To the extent that low-income countries remain poorer than high-income countries, gaps in levels of expenditure per pupil are persistently large. Indeed, cross-country heterogeneity in education expenditure per pupil is currently much higher than heterogeneity in expenditure as a share of GDP.",
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"text": " One factor contributing to the slower convergence of expenditure per pupil in real terms is the fact that teachers' salaries \u2013 the main component of education expenditure, as discussed below \u2013 are much higher in high-income countries because labor has a higher opportunity cost in these countries. In general, the opportunity cost of labor is a key variable that governments in developing countries should factor in when deciding whether to expand education now, rather than later.",
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"text": "Education inequality is falling around the world",
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"text": "An important consequence of the global education expansion is a reduction in education inequality across the globe. The following visualization shows this through a series of graphs plotting changes in the Gini coefficient of the distribution of years of schooling across different world regions. The Gini coefficient is a measure of inequality and higher values indicate higher inequality \u2013 you can read about the definition and estimation of Gini coefficients ",
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"text": "in our related article",
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"text": ". The time-series chart shows inequality by age group.",
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"text": "It can be seen that as inequality is falling over time, the level of inequality is higher for older generations than it is for younger generations. We can also see that in the reference period education inequality went down every year, for all age groups and in all world regions.",
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"text": "Have gains from historical education expansion fully materialized? The breakdown by age gives us a view into the future: as inequality is lower among today's younger generations, we can expect the decline of inequality to continue in the future. Thus, further reductions in education inequality are still to be expected within developing countries; and if the expansion of global education can be continued, we can speed up this important process of global convergence.",
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"text": "Education Gini coefficients by world region for selected age groups, 1960- 2010 \u2013 Figure 4 in Crespo Cuaresma et al. (2013)",
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"text": "Education inequality can decline rapidly across all levels of education \u2013 South Korea is an example",
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"text": "The experience of South Korea shows that it is possible to reduce education inequality rapidly across all levels of education.",
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"text": "The following visualization shows two graphs comparing the concentration of years of education in South Korea between the years 1970 and 2010. To be precise, each of these graphs shows an education Lorenz curve: a plot showing the cumulative percentage of the schooling years across all levels of education on the vertical axis, and the cumulative percentage of the population on the horizontal axis.",
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"text": "As can be seen, in 2010 education was much less concentrated than in 1970, not only because there was a smaller share of individuals without schooling (shown at the bottom of the chart), but also because there was a smaller share of individuals concentrating large proportions of school-years at higher levels of education. Indeed, in only 40 years South Korea was able to double the mean years of schooling (from 6 to 12 years) and at the same time get remarkably close to the 45-degree line marking the hypothetical scenario of perfect equality of schooling.",
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"text": "Financing of education across the world",
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"text": "Is funding for education expanding?",
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"text": "The last two decades have not a clear trend in the share of income that countries devote to education.",
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"text": "The following chart plots trends in public expenditure on education as a share of GDP. We can see an upward trend in some countries, but a downward trend in others.",
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"text": "However, as incomes \u2013 measured by GDP per capita \u2013 are generally increasing around the world, this means that the total amount of global resources spent on education is increasing in absolute terms.",
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"text": "Is additional funding for education taking resources from other sectors?",
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"text": "The following visualization shows government expenditure on education as a share of total government expenditure. The available data also does not suggest a discernible global pattern here.",
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"text": "The data does suggest, however, that there is large and persistent cross-country heterogeneity in the relative importance of education vis-a-vis other sectors, even within developing countries.",
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"text": "European countries tend to assign a lower share of public budgets to education, relative to the amount of their income that is devoted to education",
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"text": "Generally speaking, countries that spend a large share of their income on education also tend to prioritize education highly within their budgets.",
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"text": "The following visualization presents a snapshot of government spending on education around the world. Specifically, this graph plots government expenditure on education as a share of GDP on the horizontal axis, and government expenditure on education as a share of total government expenditure on the vertical axis.",
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"text": "As we can see, there is a positive correlation, but regional differences are stark: for almost every level of spending as a share of GDP along the horizontal axis, countries in Europe spend a smaller budget share on education.",
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"text": "In European countries the weight of primary education within total education spending is lower than in other countries",
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"text": "In comparison to countries where education started expanding later, European countries tend to assign relatively more of their government education budgets to the secondary and tertiary levels, while at the same time devoting relatively less of their general government budgets to education as a whole.",
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"text": "This can be appreciated in the following visualization, where the prioritization of primary education (i.e. the share of primary education within the education budget) is plotted against the overall prioritization of education (i.e. the share of education within the entire government budget).",
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"text": "It can be seen that European countries are mostly located in the upper left. There is a weak positive correlation between the variables, both across all countries and across European countries.",
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"text": "In high-income countries, households shoulder a larger share of education expenditures at higher education levels than at lower levels \u2013 but in low-income countries, this is not the case",
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"text": "The following visualization shows the percentage of total education expenditures contributed directly by households in 15 high-income countries and 15 low or middle-income countries.",
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"text": "The top chart in this figure, corresponding to high-income countries, shows a very clear pattern: households contribute the largest share of expenses in tertiary education, and the smallest share in primary education. Roughly speaking, this pattern tends to be progressive, since students from wealthier households are more likely to attend tertiary education, and those individuals who attend tertiary education are likely to perceive large private benefits.",
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"text": "In contrast, the bottom chart shows a very different picture: in several low-income countries households contribute proportionally more to primary education than to higher levels. Such distribution of private household contributions to education is regressive.",
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"alt": "UNICEF Private Education Expenditure Levels",
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"text": "Percentage of total education expenditures contributed directly by households in 30 countries, grouped by country income \u2013 Figure 32 in ",
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"text": "Recent funding structures in OECD countries",
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"text": "We have already mentioned that those countries that pioneered the expansion of primary education in the 19th century \u2013 all of which are current OECD member states \u2013 relied heavily on public funding to do so. Today, public resources still dominate funding for the primary, secondary, and post-secondary non-tertiary education levels in these countries.",
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"text": "The visualization presents OECD-average expenditure on education institutions by source of funds.",
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"text": "Publicly funded pre-primary education is more strongly developed in the European countries of the OECD",
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"text": "High-income countries tend to have better-developed pre-primary education systems than lower-income countries. However, within high-income countries, there is substantial heterogeneity in the extent to which pre-primary education is publicly financed.",
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"text": "As can be seen, publicly funded pre-primary education tends to be more strongly developed in Europe than in the non-European countries of the OECD.",
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"text": "Expenditure on pre-primary educational institutions (% of GDP), OECD, 2012 \u2013 Figure C2.4 in ",
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"text": "The largest part of funding devoted to education in OECD countries goes to finance current expenditures, mainly compensation of staff \u2013 specifically, teachers. The following two charts, taken from the OECD's report ",
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"text": ", highlight the labor-intensive nature of education. In the lower levels of education (i.e. primary, secondary, and post-secondary non-tertiary) the share of current expenditure is very large and exhibits little cross-country variation \u2013 between 90 and 97 percent of total expenditure corresponds to current expenditure across all of the OECD countries. In higher levels of education (i.e. tertiary) there is more cross-country variation, but current expenditure still dominates by a large margin across all countries.",
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"text": "Distribution of current and capital expenditure on educational institutions \u2013 Figure B6.2 in ",
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"text": "What drives current expenditure on education?",
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"text": "In the figures above we noted the importance of current expenditure in the production of education. The following table provides further details regarding the type of expenditures that comprise current spending. Specifically, this chart shows a breakdown of expenditure for tertiary-level institutions in the US (public and private), during the period 1980-1997. It shows that instruction accounts for almost half of expenditure; and while there are some small differences across sectors, there is a fair amount of stability in expenditures across time. This serves as a benchmark for lower education levels, where instruction takes an even larger share of expenditure.",
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"text": "Percent distribution of college and university current expenditures in the US, by control over time \u2013 Table 8 in Welch and Hanushek (2006)",
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"text": "International financing flows",
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"text": "Education financing in developing countries has been bolstered by development assistance",
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"text": "Following the agreement of the Millennium Development Goals, the first decade of the 21st century saw an important increase in international financial flows under the umbrella of development assistance (often also called development aid, or simply 'aid').",
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"text": "The following chart shows total OECD development assistance flows for education by level, in constant 2013 US dollars, for the period 2002-2013. As it can be seen, there are two distinct periods: in 2003-2010 flows for education increased substantially, more than doubling in real terms across all levels of education; and in the years 2010-2013 funding for basic education ",
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"text": "decreased",
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"text": ", while funding for secondary and post-secondary education remained relatively constant. For many low-income countries, where development assistance contributes a substantial share of funding for education, this marked change in trends is important. As a reference, in 2012 development assistance accounted for more than 20 percent of all domestic spending on basic education in recipient low-income countries.",
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"text": "Total development assistance for education by level, 2003-2013 \u2013 Figure 5 in the report ",
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"url": "http://www.campaignforeducation.org/docs/reports/Education%20Aid%20Watch_2015_EN_WEB.pdf",
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"text": "Education Aid Watch 2015",
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"text": [
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"text": "The share of development assistance for education going to Sub-saharan Africa has decreased",
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"text": "The reductions in development assistance funds for primary education have been coupled with important changes in regional priorities. Specifically, the share of development assistance for primary education going to sub-Saharan Africa has been decreasing sharply since the agreement of the Millennium Development Goals.",
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"text": "The following chart shows this: sub-Saharan Africa\u2019s share in total aid to primary education declined from 52 percent in 2002 to 30 percent in 2013, while the continent\u2019s share in the total number of out-of-school children rose from 46 percent to 57 percent.",
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"text": "Share of primary education disbursements from development assistance going to Sub-Saharan Africa, 2002-2013 \u2013 Figure 2.6 in Steer and Smith (2015)",
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"text": "17",
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"text": "This pattern is something specific to the education sector within the broader development assistance landscape: in the healthcare sector, the overall slowdown of flows started a couple of years later, was less abrupt, and affected proportionally less the sub-Saharan countries.",
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"url": "#note-18",
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"text": "18",
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"text": "Indeed, recent studies further highlight that development assistance for education is significantly different from assistance for healthcare in other ways: the education sector attracts less earmarked funding through multilaterals, and includes a smaller proportion of resources that developing governments can directly control for programming.",
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"url": "#note-19",
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"text": "You can read more about development assistance for healthcare in ",
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"text": "our article on healthcare spending",
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"text": ".",
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"text": "Development assistance priorities have the ability to increase or reduce expenditure inequalities",
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"text": "We mentioned above that public spending on education has translated, in the long run, into lower inequality in education outcomes across most of the world. But for any given country, with a given income distribution and demographic structure, the extent to which public spending on education contributes to reducing inequality depends crucially on the way in which spending is focused across education levels.",
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"text": "The recent UNICEF report ",
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"text": "The Investment Case for Education and Equity",
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"text": " shows that in low-income countries, on average 46 percent of public resources are allocated to the 10 percent of students who are most educated \u2013 while this figure goes down to 26 and 13 percent in lower-middle and upper-middle income countries respectively.",
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"text": "The following visualization shows further details on the concentration of public spending across different countries. The vertical axis shows the percentage of public education resources going to the 10% most educated or 10% least educated students \u2013 as we can see expenditure is heavily concentrated at the top in many low-income countries.",
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"text": "The earlier remarks about trends in international education financing flows (namely that aid is very important in low-income countries, and that a relatively low and shrinking share of aid is going to primary levels), suggest that inequality in public spending may worsen in low-income countries. Yet development assistance priorities have the ability to change this.",
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"url": "#note-20",
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"alt": "UNICEF Education Expenditure Concentration",
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"text": "Percentage of public education resources going to the 10% most educated or 10% least educated students \u2013 Figure 29 in ",
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"text": "What determines educational finance?",
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"text": "The big picture",
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"text": "Why do governments finance education?",
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"text": "One of the reasons to justify government intervention in the market for education, is that education generates positive externalities.",
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"text": " This essentially means that investing in education yields both private and social returns. Private returns to education include higher wages and better employment prospects. Social returns include pro-social behavior (e.g. volunteering, political participation) and interpersonal ",
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"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/trust/",
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"text": "trust",
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"text": "The following chart uses OECD results from the Survey of Adult Skills to show how self-reported trust in others correlates with educational attainment. More precisely, this chart plots the percentage-point difference in the likelihood of reporting to trust others, by education level of respondents. Those individuals with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education are taken as the reference group, so the percentage point difference is expressed in relation to this group.",
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"text": "As we can see, in all countries those individuals with tertiary education were by far the group most likely to report trusting others. And in almost every country, those with post-secondary non-tertiary education were more likely to trust others than those with primary or lower secondary education. The OECD's report ",
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"text": "Education at a Glance (2015)",
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"text": " provides similar descriptive evidence for other social outcomes.",
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"text": "The conclusion is that adults with higher qualifications are more likely to report desirable social outcomes, including good or excellent health, participation in volunteer activities, interpersonal trust, and political efficacy. These results hold after controlling for literacy, gender, age, and monthly earnings.",
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"text": "Likelihood of reporting to trust others, by educational attainment, OECD 2012 \u2013 Figure A8.4 in ",
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"text": "Do countries that spend more public resources on education tend to have better education outcomes?",
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"text": "Education outcomes are ",
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"text": "typically measured",
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"text": " via 'quantity' output (e.g. years of schooling) and 'quality' output (e.g. learning outcomes, such as test scores from the Programme for International Student Assessment \u2013 PISA).",
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"text": "The following visualization presents three scatter plots using 2010 data to show the cross-country correlation between (i) education expenditure (as a share of GDP), (ii) mean years of schooling, and (iii) mean PISA test scores.",
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"text": "At a cross-sectional level, expenditure on education correlates positively with both quantity and quality measures; and not surprisingly, the quality and quantity measures also correlate positively with each other.",
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"text": "But obviously correlation does not imply causation: there are many factors that simultaneously affect education spending and outcomes. Indeed, these scatterplots show that despite the broad positive correlation, there is substantial dispersion away from the trend line \u2013 in other words, there is substantial variation in outcomes that does not seem to be captured by differences in expenditure.",
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"text": "Does cross-country variation in government education expenditure explain cross-country differences in education outcomes?",
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"text": "The following visualization presents the relationship between PISA reading outcomes and average education spending per student, splitting the sample of countries by income levels.",
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"text": "It shows that income is an important factor that affects both expenditure on education and education outcomes: we can see that above a certain national income level, the relationship between PISA scores and education expenditure per pupil becomes virtually nonexistent.",
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"alt": "Average reading performance in PISA and average spending per student",
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"text": "Average reading performance in PISA and average spending per student from the age of 6 to 15 - Figure 1 in OECD (2012)",
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"text": "Several studies with more sophisticated econometric models corroborate the fact that expenditure on education does not explain well cross-country differences in learning outcomes.",
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"text": "School inputs",
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"text": "Each education system is different, but improving teacher quality is often more effective in improving learning outcomes than increasing the number of teachers per pupil",
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"text": "A vast number of studies have tried to estimate the impact of classroom resources on learning outcomes.",
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"text": "The following table summarizes results from the systematic review in Hanushek (2006).",
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"text": " In this table, the left-hand side summarizes results from econometric studies focusing on developing countries, while the right-hand side presents evidence from the US (where studies have concentrated extensively).",
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"text": "We can see that for all listed inputs and across all countries, the share of studies that have found a positive effect is small \u2013 in fact, the majority of studies find either no effect or a negative effect. This clearly does not mean that these classroom resources are not important, but rather that it is very difficult to know with confidence when and where they are a binding constraint to improve learning outcomes.",
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"text": "A first conclusion, therefore, seems to be that context and input mix are fundamental to improving outcomes \u2013 even in developing countries where the expected returns to additional resources is large across the board.",
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"text": "Taking the ratio of positive to negative effects detected in the literature as a proxy for what tends to work best, we can derive a second conclusion from the table: spending more resources on better teachers (i.e. improving teacher experience and teacher education) tends to work better to improve learning outcomes than simply increasing the number of teachers per pupil. This seems to be true both in developed and developing countries.",
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"text": "This last conclusion is consistent with the main message from the OECD's report ",
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"text": "Does money buy strong performance in PISA?",
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"text": ", which points out that countries that prioritized the quality of teachers over class sizes performed better in PISA tests.",
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"url": "#note-27",
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"text": "This is is also consistent with a recent high-quality study on the impact of teacher quality on test scores using data from the US, which suggests that improvements in teacher quality can causally raise students\u2019 test scores.",
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"text": "Percentage distribution of the estimated effect of selected key resources on student performance \u2013 based on Tables 3 and 6 in Hanushek (2006)",
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"text": "Remedial teaching can yield substantial improvements in learning outcomes",
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"text": "Education in low-income countries is particularly difficult because there is substantial heterogeneity in the degree of preparation that children have when they enter school \u2013 much more so than in high-income countries.",
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"text": "Evidence from policy 'experiments' in developing countries suggests remedial teaching, in the form of assistants teaching targeted lessons to the bottom of the class, can yield substantial improvements in learning outcomes.",
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"text": "The following visualization summarizes the effects of four different policy treatments within the so-called Teacher Community Assistant Initiative (TCAI) in Ghana \u2013 this is an initiative that evaluated four different such remedial teaching interventions.",
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"text": "The units in this figure are standard deviations of test results. The first two sets of estimates correspond to the test-score impacts of enabling community assistants to provide remedial instruction specifically to low-performing children, either during school or after school. The third set of estimates corresponds to test-score impacts of providing a community assistant and reducing class size, without targeting instruction to low-performing pupils. The last set of results corresponds to testing the effect of training teachers to provide small-group instruction targeted at pupils\u2019 actual learning levels.",
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"text": "As we can see, while all interventions had a positive effect, the lowest impacts \u2013 across all tests \u2013 come from the non-targeted 'normal curriculum' intervention that reduced class sizes, and from the intervention that provided training to teachers on how to engage in targeted remedial teaching themselves. This suggests that the improvements in outcomes were caused by the combination of targeted instruction and TCAs who, unlike teachers, were specifically dedicated to this purpose. These results are consistent with findings from across Africa, suggesting that teaching at the right level causes better learning outcomes in a cost-effective way.",
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"text": "Are pay-for-performance teacher contracts an effective instrument to improve learning outcomes?",
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"text": "We have already made the point that the bulk of education expenditure goes specifically towards financing teachers. We have also pointed out that improving teacher quality may be a particularly good instrument to improve teaching outcomes. This leads to a natural question: are pay-for-performance teacher contracts an effective instrument to improve learning outcomes? A growing body of literature in the economics of education has started using randomized control trials (i.e. policy 'experiments') to answer this question. Glewwe and Muralidharan (2016) provide the following account of the available evidence:",
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"text": "\"Results suggest that even modest changes to compensation structures to reward teachers on the basis of objective measures of performance (such as attendance or increases in student test scores) can generate substantial improvements in learning outcomes at a fraction of the cost of a \"business as usual\" expansion in education spending. However, not all performance pay programs are likely to be effective, so it is quite important to design the bonus formulae well and to make sure that these designs reflect insights from economic theory.\"",
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"text": "The conclusion is that well-designed pay-for-performance contracts are a cost-effective instrument to boost test scores; but this does not mean that they are necessarily effective at achieving other \u2013 perhaps equally important \u2013 objectives of time spent in school. In simple words, it is possible that pay-for-performance yields 'teaching to the test'.",
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"text": "Other incentive mechanisms, such as community-based monitoring of teachers, have been proposed as an alternative. Glewwe and Muralidharan (2016) also provide a review of the \u2013 somewhat limited \u2013 available evidence on such alternative incentive mechanisms.",
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"text": "Demand-side inputs are as important as supply-side inputs to produce education. Attending school and exerting effort are perhaps the most obvious examples: without these inputs, even the best-endowed schools will fail to deliver good outcomes.",
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"text": "The table summarizes information on different demand-side investments that have been shown to successfully improve quality and quantity outcomes. More precisely, this table gathers evidence from randomized control trials in developing countries, as per the review in Glewwe and Muralidharan (2016). The reported figures correspond to positive/negative significant/insignificant estimates across a set of available experimental studies (bear in mind some studies estimate more than one effect \u2013 e.g. by measuring outcomes at several points in time).",
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"text": "As we can see, the evidence suggests interventions that increase the benefits of attending school \u2013 such as conditional cash transfers \u2013 are likely to increase student time in school. And those that increase the benefits of higher effort and better academic performance \u2013 such as merit scholarships \u2013 are likely to improve learning outcomes.",
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"text": "The following visualization presents a comparison of the impact that a number of different health interventions have achieved in different countries \u2013 together with some non-health-related interventions that serve as references. The height of each bar in this graph reflects the additional school years achieved per hundred dollars spent on the corresponding intervention; so these estimates can be interpreted as a measure of how cost-effective the different interventions are.",
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"text": "We see that treating children for intestinal worms (labeled 'deworming' in the chart) led to an additional 13.9 years of education for every $100 spent in Kenya; while a program targeting anemia (labeled 'iron fortification') led to 2.7 additional years per $100 in India. These interventions seem to be much more cost-effective in improving test scores than conditional cash transfers, free school uniforms, or merit scholarships.",
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"text": "Of course, ranking these interventions is not trivial since most programs achieve multiple outcomes \u2013 indeed, we have already discussed that remedial teaching is generally effective to increase test-scores, although here we see a particular instance where it had no impact on school attendance.",
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"text": "The environment that children are exposed to early in life plays a crucial role in shaping their abilities, behavior, and talents. To a great extent, this is what drives large and remarkably persistent gaps in education achievement between individuals in the same country, but in different socioeconomic environments. Cunha et al. (2006) provide a detailed account of the theory and evidence behind this claim and discuss its implications for the design of education policies.",
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"text": "The chart shows disadvantaged children participating in the preschool program (the 'treatment group') had higher grades and were more likely to graduate from high school than the reference control group. Moreover, they spent substantially less time in special education. Other programs have similarly shown evidence of very large and persistent returns to early education interventions.",
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"text": "This is a stylized fact of OECD education spending. In all the OECD countries, the share of spending devoted to the compensation of teachers is by far the largest component of current expenditure. Moreover, expenditure on teachers' compensation is larger at the combined primary, secondary, and post-secondary non-tertiary levels of education than at the tertiary level. See Table B6.2 in ",
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"text": "The conclusion from these figures is that, while public spending does reduce education inequality in low-income countries, remaining inequalities could be further reduced by shifting resources towards lower levels of education. This evidently does not mean that resources ",
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"text": " be shifted \u2013 low-income countries and aid donors may have other objectives apart from reducing inequality. But the case for reducing inequality at the bottom is very strong, and some studies suggest that returns to education at the primary level might be higher than at post-primary levels in low-income countries (for a discussion of the vast literature on returns to education, and the ongoing debate on the validity of estimates, see Heckman, J. J., Lochner, L. J., & Todd, P. E. (2006). Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects: The Mincer equation and beyond. Handbook of the Economics of Education, 1, 307-458. ).",
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"text": "That positive externalities justify government intervention in the provision of education is essentially an efficiency argument. The logic is that individuals may not spend enough on education because they fail to internalize the positive effect that their education has on other people. But there are, of course, also equity arguments to justify government intervention in the provision of education \u2013 for instance, reducing inequality in education may be of intrinsic value, or may be instrumental in reducing inequalities in other outcomes.",
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"text": "This claim is clearly only descriptive since there are many underlying variables that simultaneously drive teacher characteristics and student outcomes in any particular country. Indeed, most of the available evidence on whether teacher quality and quantity matters is difficult to interpret causally, as it is hard to find instances where teacher quality/quantity varies exogenously. A recent study concludes on the topic: ",
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"type": "article",
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"authors": [
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"excerpt": "How is education financed? How much do we spend on it? What are the returns?",
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1 | 2024-03-11 09:06:02 | 2016-06-22 16:47:34 | 2024-03-12 17:57:51 | listed | ALBJ4LuG2qeviSSq9fCE9bUzRbXrk26jJ8cKAxEYJ0UzF4MNs1V6wtbLPJk12YZ9fo7KkSHZDw1ERM--NYrlxw | In most countries basic education is nowadays perceived not only as a right, but also as a duty – governments are typically expected to ensure access to basic education, while citizens are often required by law to attain education up to a certain basic level.1 This was not always the case: the advancement of these ideas began in the mid-19th century, when most of today’s industrialized countries started expanding primary education, mainly through public finances and government intervention. Data from this early period shows that government funds to finance the expansion of education came from a number of different sources, but taxes at the local level played a crucial role. The historical role of local funding for public schools is important to help us understand changes – or persistence – in regional inequalities. The second half of the 20th century marked the beginning of education expansion as a global phenomenon. Available data shows that by 1990 government spending on education as a share of national income in many developing countries was already close to the average observed in developed countries.2 This global education expansion in the 20th century resulted in a historical reduction in education inequality across the globe: in the period 1960-2010 education inequality went down every year, for all age groups and in all world regions. Recent estimates of education inequality across age groups suggest that further reductions in schooling inequality are still to be expected within developing countries.3 Recent cross-country data from UNESCO tells us that the world is expanding government funding for education today, and these additional public funds for education are not necessarily at the expense of other government sectors. Yet behind these broad global trends, there is substantial cross-country – and cross-regional – heterogeneity. In high-income countries, for instance, households shoulder a larger share of education expenditures at higher education levels than at lower levels – but in low-income co… | Education Spending | |
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"text": "The data comes from the OECD and brings together estimates from time diaries where respondents are asked to record the sequence of what they did over a specific day, as well as from general questionnaires where respondents are asked to recall the amount of time spent on different activities on a specific day in the previous week.",
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"text": "Download the underlying data for this chart (Google Sheets)",
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"text": "The first thing that jumps out from this chart is that there are indeed many similarities across countries.",
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"text": "This is not surprising \u2014 most of us try to split our days into \u201cwork, rest, and fun\u201d, and so there are some predictable patterns. We spend the most time working and sleeping. Together, paid work, housework, leisure, eating, and sleeping take 80\u201390% of all the 1440 minutes in a day.",
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"text": "Work is an important activity where we see large differences. Countries are sorted by paid work hours in the chart \u2014 from highest to lowest. On an average day, people in China and Mexico spend almost twice as much time on paid work as people in Italy and France do. This is a general pattern: ",
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"text": ". Keep in mind that this chart shows the average for all people in the working age bracket, from 15 to 64 years, whether or not they are employed.",
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"text": "Read more on our page on working hours:",
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"text": " all contribute to these inequalities in work and time use.",
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"text": "But what\u2019s clear in the chart here is that some differences in time use are not well explained by economic or demographic differences. In the UK, for example, people spend more time working than in France, but in both countries, people report spending a similar amount of time on leisure activities.",
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"text": "Cultural differences are likely to play a role here. The French seem to spend much more time eating than the British \u2014 and in this respect, the data goes in line with stereotypes about food culture. People in France, Greece, Italy, and Spain report spending more time eating than people in most other European countries. The country where people spend the least time eating and drinking is the USA.",
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"text": "As we can see, in all countries the average leisure time for men is higher than for women \u2014 all bubbles are below the diagonal line \u2014 but in some countries, the gaps are much larger. In Norway, the difference is very small, while in Portugal men report much more leisure time than women.",
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"text": "Every single one of us has the same \u201ctime budget\u201d: 24 hours per day and 365 days per year. But of course, not all of us can choose to spend time on the activities that we enjoy most. Differences in our freedom to allocate time to the things we enjoy are the main reasons why time-use data is important for studying living conditions.",
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"text": " linked time-use diaries with the respondents\u2019 assessments of enjoyment, on a scale from 1 to 7, to better understand the connection between time use and well-being.",
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"text": "by professors Jonathan Gershuny and Oriel Sullivan, shows the results. The estimates correspond to average reported levels of enjoyment for each activity, with confidence intervals.",
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"text": "We see that the most-enjoyed activities involve rest or leisure activities \u2014 such as eating out, sleeping, going to sports events, playing computer games, or attending cultural performances. The activities receiving the lowest ratings include doing school homework, looking for a job, or doing housework.",
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"text": "The activity where people show the greatest variation in enjoyment is working a \u201cSecond Job\u201d. This likely reflects the difference between people who work a second job because they want to, and those who work a second job because they ",
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"text": "First, we learn that the enjoyment of activities is, at least to some degree, predictable and stable. This means we can take activity groups and make meaningful comparisons across groups of people. Economists, for example, often classify any activity with an enjoyment level below work as a \u201cnon-leisure activity\u201d, to measure trends in leisure across people and time.",
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"text": "The fact that there is a very clear and predictable pattern in the enjoyment of activities suggests that differences in time use do, indeed, give us meaningful perspectives on living conditions and economic opportunities. In countries where people do more paid and unpaid work, and have less time for leisure, their enjoyment \u2014 and ",
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"text": ", evolve with time. As we grow older we build new relationships while others transform or fade, and towards the end of life, many of us spend a lot of time alone.",
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"text": "The data comes from time-use surveys, where people are asked to list all the activities that they perform over a full day, and the people who were there during each activity. We currently only have data with this granularity for the US \u2014 time-use surveys are common across many countries, but what is special about the US is that respondents of the American Time Use Survey are asked to list ",
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"text": "The numbers in this chart are based on averages for a cross-section of American society \u2014 people are only interviewed once, but we have brought together a decade of surveys, tabulating the average amount of time that survey respondents of different ages report spending with other people",
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"text": "When we\u2019re young \u2014 particularly in our teens \u2014 we spend a lot of our time with friends, parents, siblings, and extended family.",
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"text": "As we enter our 20s, time with friends, siblings, and parents starts to drop off quickly. Instead, we start spending an increasing amount of time with partners and children. The chart shows an average across Americans, so for those that have children the time spent with children is even higher, since the average is pulled down by those without children.",
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"text": "As the chart shows, this continues throughout our 30s, 40s, and 50s \u2014 over this period of their life, Americans spend much of their time with partners, children, and, unsurprisingly, co-workers.",
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"text": " of people we interact with? This chart suggests that the number of people with whom we interact is highest around 40, but then things change substantially after that. And this is perhaps the most conspicuous trend in the chart: above 40, people spend an increasing amount of time alone.",
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"text": "Older people spend a large amount of time alone and it is understandable why \u2014 time spent alone increases with age because this is when health typically deteriorates and people lose relatives and friends.",
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"text": "Indeed, many people who are older than 60 live alone as this chart shows clearly: living alone is particularly common for older adults.",
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"text": "This is part of a more general global trend \u2014 if you want to read more about the global \"rise of living alone\", we provide a detailed account of this trend across countries in this article:",
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"text": "Spending time alone is not the same as feeling lonely. This is a point that is well recognized by researchers, and one which has been confirmed empirically across countries. Surveys that ask people about living arrangements, time use, and feelings of loneliness find that solitude, by itself, is not a good predictor of loneliness.",
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1 | 2023-11-09 14:57:22 | 2020-11-29 11:10:48 | 2024-02-29 11:14:23 | unlisted | ALBJ4LuR81ZUeOxUKA-RlJ0MdzNJ5zT5zNqfCiyycVrNTccUO_ONJTL0pSSPK4iRe4tMlcVTVdGtUHwNF7M1XA | Time is the ultimate limited resource. Every one of us has the same “time budget” — 24 hours per day, 365 days per year, giving a total of 8,760 hours — [each year of our lives](https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy). How do we spend our time? There are many commonalities across the world: we all sleep, work, eat, and enjoy leisure time. But there are also important differences in the freedom people have to spend time on the things they value most. Studying how people across the world spend their time provides an important perspective for understanding living conditions, economic opportunities, and general well-being. Here we present the data on time use. We explore how it differs across countries and over time and how these differences matter for people’s lives. On our related topic page on [Working Hours](https://ourworldindata.org/working-hours), you can read more about people’s time spent working and how this varies around the world. **[See all interactive charts on time use ↓](#all-charts)** ### Related topics ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1H0uMTbbF9NlaX2vyHdKHRxEBwJbQpeuoQcF6Fhue7dE/edit ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1fZviDn01DnCXZo2Hw_FkfyZo4S5UZMzey_zof3s-iPE/edit # Time use from the perspective of an average day ## How do people across the world spend their time and what does this tell us about living conditions? Sleep, work, eat, leisure — at a high level most of us spend time on similar activities. But just how similar are the daily activities of people across the world? This is something worth considering, not just to serve our curiosity but because differences in the way we spend time give us meaningful perspectives on living conditions, economic opportunities, and general well-being. Here we take a look at the data on time use. We explore some of the key patterns that emerge from cross-country time use surveys, and then dig deeper to understand how these differences matter for people’s well-being. ### Daily activities: simi… | Time Use | |
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"text": "A useful way of tracking the evolution of wildfires across the year is to look at their week-by-week progression. This allows us to compare the extent of wildfires at a given time ",
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"text": "In the chart below, you can see the cumulative area of land burned by wildfires by week. The horizontal axis starts on week 1 (January 1st) and continues to 52 (the last week of December). Each line represents one year and shows the cumulative area burnt by any given week in that year.",
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"text": "You can explore this data for any country in the interactive chart. What you\u2019ll find is that wildfires start at different times depending on the region. Peak wildfire season in Europe, for example, tends to be from June to August. In Southern Australia, it tends to be later in the year, coinciding with the South Hemisphere\u2019s spring and summer months. You can also explore this data expressed ",
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"text": "The data for the current year is also included to allow you to put this year\u2019s current burn figures into context. It will be updated frequently, with the date of the latest published figures shown on the chart. Obviously, this means the final year of data is incomplete until the end of the fire season in each respective country.",
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"text": "Africa tends to be the region with the largest share of area burned \u2014 typically ranging from 6% to 8% each year. Figures tend to be lower in other regions but can vary a lot from year to year.",
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"text": "In the chart below, you can explore how the average land area burnt per wildfire varies across different countries and regions. As before, the current year\u2019s data is included but will remain incomplete until the end of the fire season. You can further explore ",
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"text": "Calculating the amount of carbon released from wildfires is difficult. Researchers can use several methods to estimate it. They can, for example, use a combination of satellite measurements and atmospheric models. Or measure the amount of vegetation before and after a fire to estimate how much has been lost. Finally, they might use more direct measurements of the heat released from a fire to estimate the amount of vegetation that burned; this allows them to estimate how much carbon was released. Carbon Brief provides ",
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"text": "While it\u2019s tempting to compare these numbers directly, that is not always appropriate, because some emissions from wildfires can be offset in later years by the regrowth of vegetation. This is not the case for fossil fuels: most of the carbon they emit persists in the atmosphere for centuries or more. The contribution of wildfire emissions to climate change is, therefore, a more complex balance between how burning and revegetation are changing over time. You can also track the evolution of CO",
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"text": "To understand what\u2019s going on, it\u2019s useful to look at how areas burnt have changed across different landscapes. In the chart below, we see the amount of area burned by land cover. You can see that most of this decline has come from shrublands, grasslands, and croplands (with small declines in savannas). Forest fires have been relatively stable.",
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"text": "Zheng, B., Ciais, P., Chevallier, F., Chuvieco, E., Chen, Y., & Yang, H. (2021). Increasing forest fire emissions despite the decline in global burned area. ",
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1 | 2024-03-07 14:43:42 | 2024-04-02 08:16:37 | 2024-03-15 12:10:47 | listed | ALBJ4Lue7jtiwKSCeukz-XCs8A7u7gh0b7vmGdcCCvuvtO4IHnK0AALql5ZArbcdGGM3_sOUJA4Vv27aPSFx_g | A wildfire is an uncontrolled burn of vegetation, which includes the burning of [forests](http://ourworldindata.org/forests-and-deforestation), shrublands and grasslands, savannas, and croplands. Wildfires can be caused by [human activity](https://www.science.org/content/article/human-sparked-wildfires-are-more-destructive-those-caused-nature) — such as arson, unattended fires, or the loss of control of planned burns — and natural causes, such as lightning. The _spread_ of wildfires, once ignited, is determined by a range of factors, such as the amount and types of dry vegetation in the surrounding area, wind direction and speed, moisture levels, and heat. The amount of area burned by wildfires — and the impacts on ecosystems — is driven by a combination of weather patterns, human activity, the management of vegetation and landscapes, and responses to suppress their spread. Humans are affected by wildfires both directly and indirectly. In most years, [several hundred people](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/natural-disasters?time=2000..latest&facet=none&Disaster+Type=Wildfires&Impact=Deaths&Timespan=Annual&Per+capita=false&country=~OWID_WRL) die directly from the fire. Far more – typically [tens or hundreds of thousands](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/natural-disasters?time=2000..latest&facet=none&Disaster+Type=Wildfires&Impact=Total+affected&Timespan=Annual&Per+capita=false&country=~OWID_WRL) are evacuated, or in some cases, permanently displaced from their homes. Wildfires also emit particulates and local air pollutants [that are damaging](https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/air-pollution--the-invisible-health-threat) to human health. These fires also emit carbon dioxide – a drive of climate change – and can disrupt or damage ecosystems. On this page, we look at data on wildfires' extent and how they are changing over time. **This data is updated frequently, including some charts on a weekly basis.** **[See all interactive charts on wildfires ↓](#all-charts)** # Tracking the ex… | Wildfires | |
| 1qT1GqoufLtV-JR98fNgWSHgAwBArwg0DjyjnSjU0HO8 | soil-lifespans | article | {
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"text": "The stark claim that the world has only 100; 60 or even 30 years of harvests left often hits the headlines. Although they continue to be repeated, there is no scientific basis to them.",
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"text": "While the claims are overblown, soil erosion is an important problem. Erosion rates from across the world span five orders of magnitude. Some are eroding quickly: 16% of soils are estimated to have a lifespan of less than 100 years. Others are eroding slowly: half have a lifespan greater than 1000 years; and one-third have over 5000 years.",
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"text": "To protect our soils we must adopt better agricultural practices \u2013 such as cover cropping, minimal or no tillage, and contour cultivation. This way we can extend the lifespan of the soils that we all depend on.",
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"text": "If one reads the newspaper headlines on the state of the world\u2019s soils it is easy to be convinced that we are only decades away from global famine:",
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"text": "The world\u2019s top soil could be gone within 60 years",
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"text": "UK is 30 to 40 years away from the \u2018eradication of soil fertility\u2019 warns Gove",
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"text": "The good news is that these claims are overblown. The bad news is that this doesn\u2019t stop them being repeated over and over. The \u201c60 harvests left\u201d statistic seems to be one that just won\u2019t die.",
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"text": "And while the headlines are exaggerations it shouldn\u2019t take away from the fact that many of our soils are degrading and we need to take action to restore them.",
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"text": "The honest answer is that we don\u2019t know. Botanist and science communicator, James Wong, tried to trace these claims back to their roots for an ",
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"text": " We know that a senior official at a UN FAO farming conference was quoted with the \u201c60 harvests\u201d figure and that Michael Gove mentioned a 30 to 40 year deadline. But we don\u2019t know what they based their assessments on.",
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"text": "The \u201c100 harvests\u201d figure seems to link back to a study in the UK conducted by\u00a0 researchers at the University of Sheffield.",
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"text": " I say \u201cseems to\u201d because there appears to be no mention of the 100-year figure in the paper. James Wong failed to find where this number came from; I also spent a lot of time digging and did no better.",
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"text": "In any case, this study looked at the difference in soils properties of city allotments in Leicester, a city in the UK, and soils from some surrounding farms. It concluded that the soils in city allotments had more organic matter, higher nitrogen levels and a better soil density. Not exactly informative for the larger and more urgent question on the state of the world\u2019s soils.",
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"text": "A recent study by Daniel Evans and colleagues gave us a first assessment of the range of soil lifespans across the world.",
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"text": " This drew upon a database of 4285 measured soil erosion rates, from 240 studies, covering 255 unique locations across 38 countries.\u00a0As shown in the map, these 255 locations span all continents of the world.",
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"text": "How would we estimate the \u2018lifespan\u2019 of a soil? There is no single metric to do so: soils are complex and have a range of properties from nutrient balance, to density, and structure. The best proxy \u2013 and the metric that Daniel Evans and his colleagues used \u2013 was net erosion rates of the crucial topsoil layer, the topmost layer that is around 30 centimeters thick ",
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"text": ". Crops need this layer to grow: it\u2019s where the carbon, water and nutrients get stored.",
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"text": "Depending on how the soil is managed, this topsoil can thin or thicken. If we know what rate it\u2019s thinning, we can estimate how long it would take for this layer to disappear. For example, if a topsoil was thinning by 0.5 centimeters every year, it would take 60 years to lose 30 centimeters.",
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"text": " If you want a more detailed understanding of soil lifespans and how they\u2019re calculated, the lead author explains this ",
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"text": " are plots of land which are deliberately kept free from any crops to determine erosion rates of soils without vegetation. These are used to assess a \u2018worst-case scenario\u2019.",
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"text": "In the chart here we see how the distribution of estimated soil lifespans in these three categories varied across the global dataset. On the x-axis we have the lifespan in years and on the y-axis we have the cumulative percentage of soils that were found to have that lifespan. Notice that the scale on the lifespan axis is logarithmic and stretches from 10 years to 10 million years. This further demonstrates how citing a single lifespan for the world\u2019s soils is inaccurate and nonsensical.",
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"text": "Let\u2019s focus on the \u2018conventionally managed\u2019 soils, shown in blue. These data are relevant for understanding many of the world\u2019s farming practices. We will look at conservation techniques later.",
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"text": "Many of these soils are thinning; some very quickly. 16% have a lifespan of less than 100 years if they continue to erode at their current rates. This is not a local problem: there are examples of soils with lifespans shorter than a century on all continents, including the United States, Australia, Spain, Italy, Brazil and China. The longevity of these soils is concerning and we should be acting quickly to preserve them.",
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"text": "But the \u201c60 harvests\u201d claim is quite clearly false. More than 90% of conventionally managed soils had a \u2018lifespan\u2019 greater than 60 years. The median was 491 years for thinning soils. Half had a lifespan greater than 1,000 years, and 18% exceeded 10,000 years. There were also some soils that were not eroding at all. Where soil formation rates exceeded erosion rates, soils thickened.In fact, some were thickening \u2013 soil was forming quicker than it was eroding. In the bottom-right of the chart we see the rates of soil gain. 7% of conventionally managed soils were thickening.",
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"text": "If we were to keep our land completely bare \u2013 by removing any vegetation and preventing any natural regrowth through pesticides \u2013 our soils could erode more quickly. One-third (34%) of bare soils had lifespans less than 100 years.",
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"text": "There is no single figure for how many harvests the world has left because there is so much variation in the types, quality, and management of our soils. It\u2019s just implausible that they would all be degrading at exactly the same rate. As these results show: some soils are eroding quickly while others are thickening.",
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"text": "But, there are things we can do to extend the lifespan of our soils. Take a look at the \u2018conservation\u2019 curve in the previous chart. It\u2019s shifted far to the right \u2013 even more so because the lifespan scale is logarithmic \u2013 meaning these soils are eroding much more slowly than conventionally managed soils, if at all. In fact, one-fifth were actually thickening (meaning soil was forming faster than it was eroding).",
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"text": "A comparison of these two groups is shown in the table. The share that had a lifespan less than 100 years was less than half that of conventionally-managed soils \u2013 7% versus 16%. Half of the soils managed with conservation management had a lifespan greater than 5000 years; and 40% exceeded 10,000 years.",
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1 | 2024-02-21 19:18:29 | 2021-01-14 11:00:00 | 2024-02-22 13:21:54 | listed | ALBJ4LsP6vNalwkn7iMsEkOpbrUR2zHVT0V43NJOaBoyRdrhZfMzMLM_PK-rX64bAn--lw7asGlH7wXHNU-pyQ | <Callout title="Summary"/> If one reads the newspaper headlines on the state of the world’s soils it is easy to be convinced that we are only decades away from global famine: * “[The world’s top soil could be gone within 60 years](http://www.fao.org/soils-2015/events/detail/en/c/338738/)” says a senior UN official; * “[Britain has only 100 harvests left](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/britain-facing-agricultural-crisis-scientists-warn-there-are-only-100-harvests-left-our-farm-soil-9806353.html)” writes the Independent newspaper; * “[UK is 30 to 40 years away from the ‘eradication of soil fertility’ warns Gove](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/24/uk-30-40-years-away-eradication-soil-fertility-warns-michael-gove)” [the former Environment Secretary]. The good news is that these claims are overblown. The bad news is that this doesn’t stop them being repeated over and over. The “60 harvests left” statistic seems to be one that just won’t die. And while the headlines are exaggerations it shouldn’t take away from the fact that many of our soils are degrading and we need to take action to restore them. # Where do these claims come from? The honest answer is that we don’t know. Botanist and science communicator, James Wong, tried to trace these claims back to their roots for an [article in the New Scientist](https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24232291-100-the-idea-that-there-are-only-100-harvests-left-is-just-a-fantasy/).1 We know that a senior official at a UN FAO farming conference was quoted with the “60 harvests” figure and that Michael Gove mentioned a 30 to 40 year deadline. But we don’t know what they based their assessments on. The “100 harvests” figure seems to link back to a study in the UK conducted by researchers at the University of Sheffield.2 I say “seems to” because there appears to be no mention of the 100-year figure in the paper. James Wong failed to find where this number came from; I also spent a lot of time digging and did no better. In any case, this stu… | Do we only have 60 harvests left? | |
| 1qQqo2roAI9agAMPd0wcgY3haOKflkKYunyERiYRKGpw | spanish-flu-largest-influenza-pandemic-in-history | article | {
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"text": "Parts of the article were revised in May 2023, and the chart on death tolls from flu pandemics was updated in April 2024.",
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"text": "In the last 150 years the world has seen an unprecedented improvement in health. The visualization shows that in many countries life expectancy,\u00a0which measures the average age of death, doubled from around 40 years or less to more than 80 years. This was not just an achievement across the countries shown here; life expectancy ",
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"text": "What also stands out is how abrupt and damning negative health events can be. Most striking is the large, sudden decline of life expectancy in 1918, caused by an unusually deadly influenza pandemic that became known as the \u2018Spanish flu\u2019.",
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"text": "To make sense of the fact life expectancy declined so abruptly, one has to keep in mind what it measures. ",
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"text": ". It summarizes the mortality in a particular year by calculating the average age of death of a hypothetical cohort of people for which that year\u2019s mortality pattern would remain constant throughout their entire lifetimes.",
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"text": "This influenza outbreak wasn\u2019t restricted to Spain and it didn\u2019t even originate there. Recent genetic research suggests that the strain emerged a few years earlier, around 1915, but did not take off until later on. The earliest recorded outbreak was in Kansas in the United States in 1918.",
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"text": " as such because Spain was neutral in the First World War (1914-18), which meant it was free to report on the severity of the pandemic, while countries that were fighting tried to suppress reports on how the influenza impacted their population to maintain morale and not appear weakened in the eyes of the enemies. Since it is very valuable to speak openly about the threat of an infectious disease I think Spain should be proud that it was not like other countries at that time.",
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"text": "The virus spread rapidly and eventually reached all parts of the world: the epidemic became a pandemic.",
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"text": " Even in a much less-connected world the virus eventually reached extremely remote places such as the Alaskan wilderness and Samoa in the middle of the Pacific islands. In these remote places the mortality rate was often particularly high.",
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"text": "To have a context for the severity of influenza pandemics it might be helpful to know the death count of a typical flu season. Current estimates for the annual number of deaths from influenza are around 400,000 deaths per year. Paget et al (2019) suggest an average of 389,000 with an uncertainty range 294,000 from 518,000.",
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"text": " This means that in recent years the flu was responsible for the death of 0.005% of the world population.",
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"text": " Even in comparison to the low estimate for the death count of the Spanish flu (17.4 million) this pandemic, more than a century ago, caused a death rate that was 182-times higher than today\u2019s baseline.",
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"text": "The widely cited study by Johnson and Mueller (2002) arrives at a very high estimate of at least 50 million global deaths. But the authors suggest that this could be an underestimation and that the true death toll was as high as 100 million.",
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"text": "The estimate of 50 million deaths published by Johnson and Mueller implies that the Spanish flu killed 2.7% of the world population. And if it was in fact higher\u00a0\u2013 100 million as these authors suggest \u2013 then the global death rate would have been 5.4%.",
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"text": " According to Spreeuwenberg et al. (2018) around 3.7 to 5.1 million people died worldwide.",
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"text": "The red line shows the life expectancy for a newborn, with the rainbow-colored lines above showing how long a person could expect to live once they had reached that given, older, age. The light green line, for example, represents the life expectancy for children who have reached age 10.",
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"text": "With respect to the impact of the Spanish flu it is striking that the visualization shows that the pandemic had little impact on older people. While the life expectancy at birth and at young ages declined by more than ten years, the life expectancy of 60- and 70-year olds saw no change. This is at odds with what one would reasonably expect: older populations tend to be most vulnerable to influenza outbreaks and respiratory infections. If we look at mortality for both ",
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"text": "Why were older people so resilient to the 1918 pandemic? The research literature suggests that this was the case because older people had lived through an earlier flu outbreak \u2013 the already discussed ",
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"text": "The age-specific mortality seems to be very different. As we\u2019ve seen above, the Spanish flu in 1918 was especially dangerous to infants and younger people. The new coronavirus that causes Covid-19 appears to be most lethal to the elderly, based on early evidence in China.",
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"text": "Nickol, M.E., Kindrachuk, J. (2019) \u2013 A year of terror and a century of reflection: perspectives on the great influenza pandemic of 1918\u20131919. BMC Infect Dis 19, 117 (2019). ",
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"text": "Worobey, M., Han, G.-Z., & Rambaut, A. (2014). Genesis and pathogenesis of the 1918 pandemic H1N1 influenza A virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(22), 8107\u20138112. ",
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"text": "Paget et al (2019) suggest an \u201caverage of 389\u2009000 (uncertainty range 294\u2009000-518\u2009000) respiratory deaths were associated with influenza globally each year\u201d.",
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"text": "Gilbert, Marius, Giulia Pullano, Francesco Pinotti, Eugenio Valdano, Chiara Poletto, Pierre-Yves Bo\u00eblle, Eric D\u2019Ortenzio, et al. (2020) \u2013 \u201cPreparedness and Vulnerability of African Countries against Importations of COVID-19: A Modelling Study.\u201d ",
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"text": "Alyssa S. Parpia, Martial L. Ndeffo-Mbah, Natasha S. Wenzel, and Alison P. Galvani (2016) \u2013 Effects of Response to 2014\u20132015 Ebola Outbreak on Deaths from Malaria, HIV/AIDS, and Tuberculosis, West Africa. In Emerg Infect Dis. 2016 Mar; 22(3): 433\u2013441. doi: 10.3201/eid2203.150977 PMCID: PMC4766886 PMID: 26886846 Online ",
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"text": "Worobey, M., Han, G.-Z., & Rambaut, A. (2014). Genesis and pathogenesis of the 1918 pandemic H1N1 influenza A virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(22), 8107\u20138112. ",
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"url": "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1324197111",
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"text": "Barry, J. M. (2004). The site of origin of the 1918 influenza pandemic and its public health implications. Journal of Translational Medicine, 2(1), 3. ",
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"url": "https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5876-2-3",
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"text": "P. Spreeuwenberg; et al. (1 December 2018). \"Reassessing the Global Mortality Burden of the 1918 Influenza Pandemic\". American Journal of Epidemiology. 187 (12): 2561\u20132567. doi:10.1093/aje/kwy191. PMID 30202996. Online ",
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"text": "For the definitions of epidemic and pandemic see the CDC ",
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"url": "https://www.cdc.gov/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson1/section11.html",
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"text": ".Roman Duda (2016) \u2013 Problem profile: Biorisk reduction. Published by 80,000 hours. Online ",
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"text": "Burnet F. M., Clark E. (1942) \u2013 Influenza: A Survey of the Last 50 Years in the Light of Modern Work on the Virus of Epidemic Influenza. London: Macmillan. Partly online on Google books.",
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"text": "Mamelund, S. E. (2017). Profiling a Pandemic. Who were the victims of the Spanish flu?{ref} While peak mortality was reached in 1918 the pandemic did not wane until two years later in late 1920.",
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1 | 2023-07-06 14:13:36 | 2020-03-04 10:23:59 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LvsvfDRL5W-ODlyR3DaFa_cT-fBxe24FXHZXwnRDCGoVj1likG8CLwu8UjBkSIFQaiuuw2Vv8UNxkFZ1g | <Callout /> In the last 150 years the world has seen an unprecedented improvement in health. The visualization shows that in many countries life expectancy, which measures the average age of death, doubled from around 40 years or less to more than 80 years. This was not just an achievement across the countries shown here; life expectancy [has doubled](https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy#how-did-life-expectancy-change-over-time) in all regions of the world. What also stands out is how abrupt and damning negative health events can be. Most striking is the large, sudden decline of life expectancy in 1918, caused by an unusually deadly influenza pandemic that became known as the ‘Spanish flu’. To make sense of the fact life expectancy declined so abruptly, one has to keep in mind what it measures. _Period life expectancy_, which is the precise name for this measure, captures the mortality in _one particular year_. It summarizes the mortality in a particular year by calculating the average age of death of a hypothetical cohort of people for which that year’s mortality pattern would remain constant throughout their entire lifetimes. This influenza outbreak wasn’t restricted to Spain and it didn’t even originate there. Recent genetic research suggests that the strain emerged a few years earlier, around 1915, but did not take off until later on. The earliest recorded outbreak was in Kansas in the United States in 1918.1 But it [was named](https://www.history.com/news/why-was-it-called-the-spanish-flu) as such because Spain was neutral in the First World War (1914-18), which meant it was free to report on the severity of the pandemic, while countries that were fighting tried to suppress reports on how the influenza impacted their population to maintain morale and not appear weakened in the eyes of the enemies. Since it is very valuable to speak openly about the threat of an infectious disease I think Spain should be proud that it was not like other countries at that time. The virus spread rapidly and eventual… | The Spanish flu: The global impact of the largest influenza pandemic in history | |
| 1qQXPsbbG_dMycpoxn5GZ61DM18zIjzwK8doTRuDS2Vg | japans-cherry-trees-have-been-blossoming-earlier-due-to-warmer-spring-temperatures | data-insight | {
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1 | 2024-02-16 12:03:26 | 2024-03-15 07:33:08 | 2024-03-15 07:33:10 | unlisted | ALBJ4LuZjiPkyCw_s39TweRcseSOyXz-1fc5hXbIru0cL-vGzECGqGf7KxIpYguRbjfVg0c6vbFyZCFAgQGpQQ | <Image filename="20240304-cherry-blossoms-final-source-name-fixed.png"/> The peak flowering of cherry trees in Kyoto, Japan, has been recorded since the ninth century. Yasuyuki Aono and colleagues from the Osaka Prefecture University collated this data from historical diaries and chronicles, indicating the dates on which cherry blossom viewing parties had been held or other observations of peak blossom. In 2023, the peak cherry blossom happened on 25 March — the earliest date since recording began. This long-run data is a proxy measure for how the climate has changed. The onset of the cherry blossom is linked with warmer temperatures. The combined effects of urbanization and higher temperatures due to climate change have caused the peak blossom to gradually move earlier in the year since the early 20th century. [Explore this data](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/date-of-the-peak-cherry-tree-blossom-in-kyoto) → | Japan’s cherry trees have been blossoming earlier due to warmer spring temperatures | |
| 1qEoTctp8U_N1qfFFiSx66nsiWzWz8IhE1J3cghKf8dY | sdgs/no-poverty | article | {
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"text": "The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 is an international agreement to strengthen disaster preparedness to reduce risk and losses from disasters. Although the indicator definition is framed in terms of the number of countries adopting national disaster risk reduction strategies in line with the Sendai Framework, the United Nations tracks this measure in terms of country levels of implementation.",
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"text": "The interactive visualization shows data for this indicator in terms of levels of country implementation, on a scale from 0 to 1, based on an average score from 10 scored sub-indicators that collectively reflect progress towards implementation of the Sendai Framework.",
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"text": " Indicator 1.5.4 is the \u201cproportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies\u201d in the",
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1 | 2022-10-04 15:37:06 | 2023-07-18 14:13:00 | 2023-12-28 16:31:10 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lt3UMK-_yubewGmP-k1xUrqXyFurMMGUd3hwgXEFBFzndoKtIZ0nhJ8m6tZyQzDkC1LPoKy4wkZfEzcoA | [
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_Sustainable Development Goal 1 is to “end poverty in all its forms everywhere”, __[according to the United Nations](https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/poverty/)__._ The visualizations and data below present the global perspective on where the world stands today and how it has changed. Longer-term trends, research, and additional data on poverty can be found on _Our World in Data,_ particularly our topic page on [poverty](https://ourworldindata.org/poverty). The [UN has defined](https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/Global%20Indicator%20Framework%20after%202023%20refinement_Eng.pdf) 7 _targets_ and 13 _indicators_ for SDG 1. Targets specify the goals, and indicators represent the metrics by which the world tracks whether these targets are achieved. Below we quote the original text of all targets and show the data on the agreed indicators. ## Target 1.1 Eradicate extreme poverty ### SDG Indicator 1.1.1 Share below the international poverty line **Definition of the SDG indicator:** Indicator 1.1.1 is the “proportion of the population living below the international poverty line by sex, age, employment status and geographic location (urban/rural)” in the_ _[UN SDG framework](https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/Global%20Indicator%20Framework%20after%202023%20refinement_Eng.pdf). The international poverty line is defined as living on $2.15 per day ([updated](https://ourworldindata.org/from-1-90-to-2-15-a-day-the-updated-international-poverty-line) from the previous poverty line of $1.90 in 2015). This poverty line is measured in international dollars, a hypothetical currency that adjusts for price differences between countries (purchasing power parity). It is measured in prices of 2017 to adjust for price changes over time (inflation). Data for this indicator on the proportion of the population below the international poverty line is shown in the interactive visualization. Breakdowns by sex, age, employment status, and geographical location are not available for all countries, but our topic page o… | End poverty in all its forms everywhere |
| 1q1sbAEqbeOgit1Nzc_mEoHLqEzXs5U4ONgHgI6YQN7k | the-history-of-global-economic-inequality | article | {
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"text": ". A person\u2019s knowledge, skills, and how hard they work all matter for whether they are poor or not \u2013 but all these personal factors together matter less than the one factor that is entirely outside of a person\u2019s control: whether they happen to be born into a large, productive economy or not.",
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"text": "To make incomes comparable across countries and time, daily incomes are measured in international-$ \u2014 a hypothetical currency that would buy a comparable amount of goods and services that a U.S. dollar would buy in the United States in 2011 (for a more detailed explanation, see ",
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"text": "By 1800, few countries had achieved economic growth. The chart shows that most of the world lived in poverty with an income similar to today's poorest countries. At the beginning of the 19th century, the vast majority\u2014",
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"text": "In 1975, 175 years later, the world had changed\u2014it had become very unequal. The world income distribution was 'bimodal', with the two-humped shape of a camel: one hump below the international poverty line and a second hump at considerably higher incomes. The world had divided into a poor, developing world and a developed world more than 10-times richer.",
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"text": "Over the following 4 decades, the world income distribution has again changed dramatically. There has been a convergence in incomes: in many poorer countries, especially in South-East Asia, incomes have grown faster than in rich countries. While enormous income differences remain, the world can no longer be neatly divided into 'developed' and 'developing' countries. We have moved from a two-hump to a one-hump world. And at the same time, the distribution has also shifted to the right\u2014the incomes of many of the world's poorest citizens have increased, and extreme poverty has ",
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"text": "This visualization shows the distribution of incomes between 1988 and 2011. The data was compiled by the economists Branko Milanovic and Christoph Lakner.",
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"text": "The previous visualization, which showed the change from 1820 to the year 2015, is based on estimates of inflation-adjusted average incomes per country (GDP per capita) and a measure of income inequality within a country only. It gives us a rough idea of how the distribution of incomes changed, but it is not very detailed or precise. In contrast to this, the work by Branko Milanovic and Christoph Lakner is based on much more detailed household survey data. This data measures household income at each decile of the income distribution, and the two authors used this information to arrive at the global income distribution. The downside of this approach is that we can only go as far back in time as household surveys were conducted in many countries around the world.",
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"text": "The visualization shows the end of the long era in human history in which global inequality was increasing. Starting with industrialization in North-Western Europe, incomes in this part of the world started to increase while material prosperity in the rest of the world remained low. While some countries followed European industrialization \u2013 first Northern America, Oceania, and parts of South America and later Japan and East Asia \u2013 other countries in Asia and Africa remained poor. As a consequence of this, global inequality increased over a long period. Only in the period shown in this visualization did this change: with rapid growth in much of Asia and Latin America, the global distribution of incomes became less unequal. The incomes of the poorer half of the world population rose faster than the incomes of the richer half.",
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"text": "If you want to use this visualization for a presentation or teaching purposes, download a zip folder with an image file for every year and an animated .gif ",
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"text": "This visualization shows how the global income distribution has changed over the decade up to 2013. Tom\u00e1\u0161 Hellebrandt and Paolo Mauro,\u00a0the authors of the paper",
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"text": " from which this data is taken, confirm the finding that global inequality has declined but remains very high: the Gini coefficient of global inequality has declined from 68.7 to 64.9.",
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"text": "The\u00a0visualizations above show the income distribution on a logarithmic x-axis. This chart, in contrast,\u00a0plots incomes on\u00a0a linear x-axis\u00a0and thereby\u00a0emphasizes how very high global inequality still is: The bulk of the world population lives on very low incomes, and the income distribution stretches out very far to the higher incomes at the right-hand side of the chart; incomes over 14,000 international-$ are cut off as they would make this chart with a linear x-axis unreadable.",
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"text": "A second positive global development shown in this chart is the rise of the global median income. In 2003 half of the world's population lived on less than 1,090 international-$ per year, and the other half lived on more than 1,090 international-$. This level of global median income has almost doubled over the last decade and was\u00a02,010 international-$ in 2013.",
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"text": "Finally, the\u00a0authors\u00a0also dare to project\u00a0what global inequality will look like in 2035. Assuming the growth rates shown in the insert in the top-right corner, the authors project global inequality to decline further and to reach a Gini of 61.3. At the same time, the incomes of the world's poorer half would continue to increase significantly, so that the global median income could again double and reach 4,000 international-$ in 2035.",
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"text": "If you are looking for a visualization of only the observed global income distribution in 2003 and 2013, you can find it ",
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"text": "The increase in prosperity\u2014and decrease in poverty\u2014is substantial. The income cut-off of the poorest 10% has increased from 260 international-$ to 480 international-%, and the median income has almost doubled from 1,100 international-$ to 2,010. Global mean income\u00a0in 2013 was 5,375 international-$.",
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"text": "The previous and the following\u00a0visualization show how high global income inequality is. The\u00a0cut-off to the richest 10% of the world in 2013\u00a0was 14,500 int-$; the cut-off for the poorest 10% was 480 int-$. The ratio is 30.2.",
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"text": "Taking the historical experience as a guide for what is possible in the future, we have to conclude that global inequality will remain high for a\u00a0long time. To understand this, we can ask how long it would take for those with incomes at the poorest 10% cutoff to achieve the current incomes of the richest 10% cutoff (14,500 international-$). This income level is\u00a0roughly the\u00a0level of GDP per capita\u00a0above which the\u00a0extreme poverty headcount gets close to 0% for most countries (",
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"text": ").\u00a0We have seen that poorer countries can achieve faster growth, but we have not seen growth rates of\u00a0more than\u00a06% over a time frame as long as necessary to reach the level of the global 10%\u00a0in such a short time. If the past is a good guide for the future, the world will likely be highly unequal for a long time.",
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"excerpt": "The inequality in people\u2019s living conditions across the world is extremely large. How did the world become so unequal, and what can we expect for the future?",
"subtitle": "The inequality in people\u2019s living conditions across the world is extremely large. How did the world become so unequal, and what can we expect for the future?",
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1 | 2023-06-01 19:27:25 | 2017-04-17 08:49:55 | 2023-12-28 16:31:10 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lv-XqImPPNaOmdtteq4N-ASsWHRFl-Ci8ucho7EUlpRw96uCaQxHE4KZXXa3hhs9_-7ahkXhFGLaqaHQg | <Callout /> The inequality in people’s living conditions today is extremely large. The panel of charts below shows how large these differences are, and how the inequality in 12 important measures of living standards maps onto the economic inequality in the world. What is most important for how healthy, wealthy, and educated you are is not who you are, but where you are. This was the point I made in [another article](https://ourworldindata.org/global-economic-inequality-introduction). A person’s knowledge, skills, and how hard they work all matter for whether they are poor or not – but all these personal factors together matter less than the one factor that is entirely outside of a person’s control: whether they happen to be born into a large, productive economy or not. How did we get here? How did the world become so unequal, and what can we expect for the future? <Image filename="Correlates-of-GDP_How-is-life-at-different-levels-of-income.png"/> ## Global divergence followed by convergence The chart shows estimates of the distribution of annual income among all world citizens over the last two centuries. To make incomes comparable across countries and time, daily incomes are measured in international-$ — a hypothetical currency that would buy a comparable amount of goods and services that a U.S. dollar would buy in the United States in 2011 (for a more detailed explanation, see [here](https://ourworldindata.org/what-are-PPPs)). The distribution of incomes is shown at 3 points in time: * By 1800, few countries had achieved economic growth. The chart shows that most of the world lived in poverty with an income similar to today's poorest countries. At the beginning of the 19th century, the vast majority—[roughly 80%](https://ourworldindata.org/poverty?insight=after-200-years-of-progress-the-fight-against-global-poverty-is-just-beginning#introduction)—of the world lived in material conditions that we would refer to as extreme poverty today. * In 1975, 175 years later, the world had changed—it had become ver… | The history of global economic inequality | |
| 1pxn1zl3ZUQsPf2VmqkbQlZYmTIqjcWjmE87oVL4MB4k | new-polio-vaccines-are-key-to-preventing-outbreaks-and-achieving-eradication | article | {
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"text": "https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)02844-1",
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{
"text": "Global Polio Eradication Initiative. (2019, October 24). Two out of three wild poliovirus strains eradicated. News Stories. ",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
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"url": "https://web.archive.org/web/20191024163941/http://polioeradication.org/news-post/two-out-of-three-wild-poliovirus-strains-eradicated/",
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"text": "https://web.archive.org/web/20191024163941/http://polioeradication.org/news-post/two-out-of-three-wild-poliovirus-strains-eradicated/",
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"type": "article",
"title": "New polio vaccines are key to preventing outbreaks and achieving eradication",
"authors": [
"Saloni Dattani"
],
"excerpt": "To reach the goal of polio eradication, we can use new vaccines to contain outbreaks and improve testing, outbreak responses, and sanitation.",
"subtitle": "To reach the goal of polio eradication, we can use new vaccines to contain outbreaks and improve testing, outbreak responses, and sanitation.",
"featured-image": "polio-edit-reduced.png"
} |
1 | 2024-05-02 09:17:37 | 2024-05-27 08:01:04 | 2024-05-27 07:50:21 | listed | ALBJ4LvPdv67GYiXAUA03xMBLmeoZ5xN38FE173NNvnQVmtR6Z9_xCczphWllH2Z4HLSMSw7aeFvLG9XdcV54A | We’ve [come a long way](https://ourworldindata.org/global-fight-polio) in the fight against polio — the infectious disease that used to paralyze hundreds of thousands of people each year. Most of them were children. Eradication is possible, but the last stretch has proven difficult. Two of the three serotypes (distinct types within a species of virus) of wild poliovirus have already been eradicated. However, two big challenges remain in crossing the finish line. One is eliminating the last serotype of wild poliovirus. Another is containing vaccine-derived polioviruses, which arose from oral polio vaccines in rare circumstances and spread in some regions where protection against the disease declined. The world can overcome these hurdles. We can use new vaccines to contain them and improve testing, outbreak responses, and sanitation. # Vaccines have helped us reduce polio cases substantially over time The chart below shows the dramatic decline in polio cases. This was possible due to effective vaccination efforts with two types of vaccine: inactivated polio vaccines (IPV), developed by Jonas Salk in 1955, and oral polio vaccines (OPV), developed by Albert Sabin in 1961. Improvements in providing [clean water and sanitation](https://ourworldindata.org/clean-water-sanitation) have also helped to reduce the spread of poliovirus through contaminated water and food and the risks of other infections, which prevent children from developing immunity against polio.1 In the early 1980s, there were around 400,000 estimated cases annually. In the last few years, there have been around 4,000. That’s a hundred-fold decline. [Millions of children](https://ourworldindata.org/polio#the-costs-and-benefits-of-eradicating-polio) have been spared lifelong paralysis. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-of-estimated-paralytic-polio-cases-by-world-region"/> # We are very close to eradicating all three types of wild poliovirus Wild poliovirus has three serotypes. The three serotypes are distinct types of poliov… | New polio vaccines are key to preventing outbreaks and achieving eradication | |
| 1pwTrbEKOy4D3LPbpbNaivQyYVv2KTePpw-P4F5fMNjA | details-on-demand | fragment | {
"toc": [],
"body": [],
"refs": {
"errors": [],
"definitions": {}
},
"type": "fragment",
"title": "Details on Demand",
"byline": "Our World in Data team",
"authors": [
"Our World in Data team"
],
"details": [
{
"id": "centroid",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Centroid"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The centroid of a country is the geometric center of its shape. It is the point that represents the average position of all the points within the country\u2019s borders, often referred to as the \u201ccenter of mass\u201d of the country\u2019s area. The centroid is used in geographic analysis to find a central point that summarizes the country\u2019s location, although it may not always align with the intuitive geographic center due to the country\u2019s shape and geographic features."
}
]
},
{
"id": "intact-forest-landscapes",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Intact Forest Landscapes (IFL)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Intact Forest Landscapes (IFL) are defined as territories within the global extent of forest cover which contains forest and non-forest ecosystems minimally influenced by human economic activity, with an area of at least 500 km<sup>2</sup> and a minimal width of 10 km."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Areas with evidence of certain types of human influence are considered disturbed and consequently not eligible for inclusion in an IFL:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Settlements (including a buffer zone of 1 km);"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Infrastructure used for transportation between settlements or for industrial development of natural resources, including roads (except unpaved trails), railways, navigable waterways (including seashore), pipelines, and power transmission lines (including in all cases a buffer zone of 1 km on either side);"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Agriculture and timber production;"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Industrial activities during the last 30-70 years, such as logging, mining, oil and gas exploration and extraction, peat extraction, etc."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Areas with evidence of low-intensity disturbances are eligible for inclusion in an IFL. For example, local shifting cultivation activities, diffuse grazing by domestic animals, low-intensity selective logging, and hunting."
}
]
},
{
"id": "plugin_hybrid",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Plug-in hybrid"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cars or other vehicles that have a rechargeable battery and electric motor, <i>and</i> an internal combustion engine."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The battery in plug-in hybrids is smaller and has a shorter range than battery-electric cars, so over longer distances, the car starts running on gasoline once the battery has run out."
}
]
},
{
"id": "battery_electric",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Fully battery-electric"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cars or other vehicles that are powered entirely by an electric motor and battery, instead of an internal combustion engine."
}
]
},
{
"id": "trade-openness-index",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Trade openness index"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The trade openness index represents the ratio of total trade (exports plus imports) to economic output. The higher the index, the greater the influence of trade transactions on economic activity."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An important consideration is that the openness index, when calculated for the world as a whole, includes double-counting of transactions: when country A sells goods to country B, this shows up in the data both as an import (B imports from A) and as an export (A sells to B)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "If you compare a chart showing the <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/globalization-over-5-centuries-km\">global trade openness index</a> and one showing <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/merchandise-exports-gdp-cepii?country=OWID_WRL\">global merchandise exports as a share of GDP</a>, you find that the former is almost twice as large as the latter."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Why is the global openness index not exactly twice the value reported in the chart plotting global merchandise exports? There are three reasons."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "First, the global openness index uses different sources. Second, the global openness index includes trade in goods and services, while merchandise exports include goods but not services. And third, the amount that country A reports exporting to country B does not always match what B reports importing from A."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "We explore this in more detail in <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/trade-and-globalization#measurement-and-data-quality\">the \u201cMeasurement\u201d section</a> of our page on trade and globalization."
}
]
},
{
"id": "gdp",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Gross domestic product"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a measure of a country's economic performance. It represents the total monetary value of all goods and services produced within a nation\u2019s borders over a specific time period, typically annually or quarterly. GDP includes consumption, government spending, investments, and net exports (exports minus imports)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "GDP is used to gauge the health of an economy, with increases indicating growth and decreases signaling contraction. Policymakers, economists, and analysts use GDP to make informed decisions and comparisons between countries. It can be measured in nominal terms or adjusted for inflation to reflect real GDP."
}
]
},
{
"id": "employment_agriculture",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Employment in agriculture"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The agriculture sector includes activities in agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing."
}
]
},
{
"id": "employment_industry",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Employment in industry"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The industry sector includes mining and quarrying, manufacturing, construction, and public utilities (electricity, gas, and water)."
}
]
},
{
"id": "employment_services",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Employment in services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The services sector includes wholesale and retail trade; restaurants and hotels; transport, storage, and communications; financing, insurance, real estate, and business services; and community, social, and personal services."
}
]
},
{
"id": "incidence_prevalence",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Incidence and prevalence"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Incidence refers to <i>new</i> cases of a condition within a given time period, such as a year."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Prevalence refers to the <i>total</i> cases of a condition, which includes both new and existing cases."
}
]
},
{
"id": "primaryenergy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Primary energy"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Primary energy is the energy available as resources \u2013 such as the fuels burnt in power plants \u2013 before it has been transformed. This relates to the coal before it has been burned, the uranium, or the barrels of oil."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Primary energy includes energy that the end user needs, in the form of electricity, transport and heating, plus inefficiencies and energy that is lost when raw resources are transformed into a usable form."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "You can read more on the different ways of measuring energy <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/energy\">in our article</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "substitutionmethod",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Substitution method"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The \u2018substitution method\u2019 is used by researchers to correct primary energy consumption for efficiency losses experienced by fossil fuels. It tries to adjust non-fossil energy sources to the inputs that would be needed if it was generated from fossil fuels. It assumes that wind and solar electricity is as inefficient as coal or gas."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "To do this, energy generation from non-fossil sources are divided by a standard \u2018thermal efficiency factor\u2019 \u2013 typically around 0.4"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Nuclear power is also adjusted despite it also experiencing thermal losses in a power plant. Since it\u2019s reported in terms of electricity output, we need to do this adjustment to calculate its equivalent input value."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "You can read more about this adjustment <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/energy-substitution-method\">in our article</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "foodinsecurity",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Food insecurity"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Food insecurity is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations as the \u201csituation when people lack secure access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life.\u201d"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is measured using the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES). This is based on household survey data about several conditions someone with food insecurity would typically experience."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Moderate food insecurity is generally associated with the inability to regularly eat healthy, nutritious diets."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Severe food insecurity is more strongly related to insufficient food (energy)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "You can read more about this <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/food-insecurity\">in our article</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "stunting",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Childhood stunting"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Stunting is one of the leading measures used to assess childhood malnutrition. It indicates that a child has failed to reach their growth potential due to disease, poor health, and malnutrition."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A child is defined as \u2018stunted\u2019 if they are too short for their age. This indicates that their growth and development have been hindered."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Stunting is measured based on a child\u2019s height relative to their age."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Stunting is the share of children under five years old that fall two standard deviations below the expected height for their age."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "You can read more about this <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/stunting-definition\">in our article</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "standard-deviation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Standard deviation"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Standard deviations measure the spread of values in a set."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They indicate how much individual values deviate from the average of the dataset."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In a normal distribution, about 68% of the data points fall within one standard deviation of the mean in both directions. This means that one standard deviation defines the range around the mean that contains approximately 68% of the values. Similarly, two standard deviations defines the range around the mean that contains approximately 95% of the values."
}
]
},
{
"id": "wasting",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Childhood wasting"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2018Wasting\u2019 is one of the key indicators used to assess the prevalence of childhood malnutrition."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A child is defined as \u2018wasted\u2019 if their weight is too low for their height."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Wasting is often referred to as acute malnutrition. It is a sign that a child has experienced short periods of undernutrition, resulting in significant wastage of muscle and fat tissue."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Wasting is measured based on a child\u2019s weight relative to their height."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In a population, the prevalence of wasting is defined as the share of child under five years old that fall two standard deviations below the expected weight for their height."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "You can read more about this <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/wasting-definition\">in our article</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "sendai",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction is a 15-year global agreement that was adopted by United Nations member states in 2015 to manage and reduce disaster risks."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It aims to substantially reduce disaster risks and losses in lives, livelihoods, health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It outlines 4 priorities for action: (1) understanding disaster risk, (2) strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk, (3) investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience, and (4) enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and recovery."
}
]
},
{
"id": "dobsonunit",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Dobson unit (DU)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Dobson Units (DU) are used to measure the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "One Dobson Unit is the number of molecules of ozone that would be required to create a layer of pure ozone 0.01 millimeters thick at a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius and a pressure of 1 atmosphere."
}
]
},
{
"id": "inadequatelymanagedwaste",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Inadequately disposed plastic waste"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Inadequately disposed plastic waste is not formally managed and includes disposal in dumps or open, uncontrolled landfills, where it is not fully contained."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This makes it at a much higher risk of leaking into the natural environment, rivers, or the ocean."
}
]
},
{
"id": "peacekeeping",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Peacekeeping mission"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "UN peacekeeping operations are meant to maintain peace and security; to facilitate the political process; to protect civilians; to assist in the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants; to support the organization of elections; and to protect and promote human rights and assist in restoring the rule of law."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Operations are based on the principles of consent of the parties, impartiality, and the non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate."
}
]
},
{
"id": "flop",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Floating-point operation"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A floating-point operation (FLOP) is a type of computer operation. One FLOP represents a single arithmetic operation involving floating-point numbers, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division."
}
]
},
{
"id": "dalys",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Disability-adjusted life years"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) measure the total burden of disease \u2013 both from years of life lost due to premature death and years lived with a disability. One DALY equals one year of healthy life."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org//burden-of-disease\">Learn more</a> about how the burden of disease is measured in our article."
}
]
},
{
"id": "fossilemissions",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Fossil emissions"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Fossil emissions measure the quantity of carbon dioxide (CO\u2082) emitted from the burning of fossil fuels, and directly from industrial processes such as cement and steel production."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Fossil CO\u2082 includes emissions from coal, oil, gas, flaring, cement, steel, and other industrial processes."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Fossil emissions do not include land use change, deforestation, soils, or vegetation."
}
]
},
{
"id": "consumptionbasedemissions",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Consumption-based emissions"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Consumption-based emissions are national or regional emissions that have been adjusted for trade."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They are calculated as domestic (or \u2018production-based\u2019 emissions) emissions minus the emissions generated in the production of goods and services that are exported to other countries or regions, plus emissions from the production of goods and services that are imported."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Consumption-based emissions = Production-based \u2013 Exported + Imported emissions"
}
]
},
{
"id": "gwp",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Global warming potential"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Global warming potential (GWP) measures the amount of heat absorbed by a greenhouse gas relative to the same mass of carbon dioxide (CO\u2082). It measures the amount of warming a gas creates compared to CO\u2082."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Carbon dioxide is given a GWP value of one. If a gas had a GWP of 10 then one kilogram of that gas would generate ten times the warming effect as one kilogram of CO\u2082."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Since greenhouse gases spend different amounts of time in the atmosphere, their global warming potential depends on the length of time that it\u2019s measured over. For example, GWP can be measured as the warming effect over 20 years, 50 years, or 100 years."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Potent but short-lived greenhouse gases \u2013 like methane, for example \u2013 will have a higher GWP when measured over 20 years than over 100 years."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The GWP value for methane over 100 years (GWP100) is 28. This means one kilogram of methane would cause 28 times the warming of one kilogram of CO\u2082."
}
]
},
{
"id": "carbondioxideequivalents",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Carbon dioxide equivalents (CO\u2082eq)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas, but not the only one. To capture all greenhouse gas emissions, researchers express them in \u201ccarbon dioxide equivalents\u201d (CO\u2082eq). This takes all greenhouse gases into account, not just CO\u2082."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "To express all greenhouse gases in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO\u2082eq), each one is weighted by its global warming potential (GWP) value. GWP measures the amount of warming a gas creates compared to CO\u2082. CO\u2082 is given a GWP value of one. If a gas had a GWP of 10 then one kilogram of that gas would generate ten times the warming effect as one kilogram of CO\u2082."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Carbon dioxide equivalents are calculated for each gas by multiplying the mass of emissions of a specific greenhouse gas by its GWP factor."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This warming can be stated over different timescales. To calculate CO\u2082eq over 100 years, we\u2019d multiply each gas by its GWP over a 100-year timescale (GWP100)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Total greenhouse gas emissions \u2013 measured in CO\u2082eq \u2013 are then calculated by summing each gas\u2019 CO\u2082eq value."
}
]
},
{
"id": "carbonopportunitycost",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Carbon opportunity cost"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Carbon opportunity cost of foods and crops is the amount of carbon lost from native vegetation and soils in order to produce it."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "When we use land for agriculture \u2013 to grow crops, raise livestock, or produce biofuels \u2013 we give up the opportunity for that land to be natural vegetation, such as grassland, forest, shrub, or peatland. This would sequester more carbon in its soils and vegetation than using the land for agriculture."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "We describe this foregone carbon sequestration as a \u2018carbon opportunity cost\u2019. It measures the amount of carbon that would be captured if we stopped using the land for agriculture and allowed natural vegetation to regrow."
}
]
},
{
"id": "radiativeforcing",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Radiative forcing"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Radiative forcing measures the difference between incoming energy and the energy radiated back to space. If more energy is absorbed than radiated, the atmosphere becomes warmer."
}
]
},
{
"id": "foodmiles",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Food miles"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Food miles are measured in tonne-kilometers which represent the transport of one tonne of food over a distance of one kilometer."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Food miles are usually expressed by the mode of travel, such as road, rail, air, or boat."
}
]
},
{
"id": "lca",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Life cycle analysis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a method used by researchers to quantify the environmental impact of products over their entire lifetime."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Environmental impacts are often measured for goods at their use stage \u2013 the amount of electricity needed to power a lightbulb or the emissions from the tailpipe of a car."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Life cycle analyses also quantify the environmental impact upstream and downstream of this stage. It often includes the extraction and processing of raw materials, energy used in manufacturing, processing, transport, packaging, its use, and waste disposal."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In the case of a car, it might include the environmental impact of the mining of raw materials to build the car, the energy used in manufacturing, distribution to the seller, customer use, and its disposal at the end of its life. The parts of the supply chain that LCAs cover can vary. Some may cover the full supply chain to disposal. Some may only cover impacts up to the retailer."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ghg",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Greenhouse gas"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A greenhouse gas (GHG) is a gas that causes the atmosphere to warm by absorbing and emitting radiant energy. Greenhouse gases absorb radiation that is radiated by Earth, preventing this heat from escaping to space."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Carbon dioxide (CO\u2082) is the most well-known greenhouse gas, but there are others including methane, nitrous oxide, and in fact, water vapor."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Human-made emissions of greenhouse gases from fossil fuels, industry, and agriculture are the leading cause of global climate change."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ghgemissions",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Greenhouse gas emissions"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A greenhouse gas (GHG) is a gas that causes the atmosphere to warm by absorbing and emitting radiant energy. Greenhouse gases absorb radiation that is radiated by Earth, preventing this heat from escaping to space."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Carbon dioxide (CO\u2082) is the most well-known greenhouse gas, but there are others including methane, nitrous oxide, and in fact, water vapor."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Human-made emissions of greenhouse gases from fossil fuels, industry, and agriculture are the leading cause of global climate change."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Greenhouse gas emissions measure the total amount of all greenhouse gases that are emitted. These are often quantified in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO\u2082eq) which take account of the amount of warming that each molecule of different gases creates."
}
]
},
{
"id": "hiv",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "HIV"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that is transmitted through sex, blood transfer, or from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding. It targets immune cells that help the body respond to infection, which gradually results in <a href=\"#dod:hiv_aids\">AIDS</a> (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Without effective treatment, the immune system will become weakened to the point that it can no longer fight infection and disease."
}
]
},
{
"id": "hiv_aids",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "HIV/AIDS"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a condition that describes the most advanced stages of <a href=\"#dod:hiv\">HIV</a> infection. It is defined by the occurrence of at least one of more than 20 life-threatening cancers or \u201copportunistic infections\u201d that can take advantage of a weakened immune system."
}
]
},
{
"id": "antiretroviral_therapy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Antiretroviral therapy"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a long-term medical treatment for <a href=\"#dod:hiv_aids\">HIV/AIDS</a>. It works by suppressing the virus from multiplying in the body. This keeps the infection under control and helps to prevent the disease from progressing."
}
]
},
{
"id": "int_dollar_abbreviation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "International dollars"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "International dollars are a hypothetical currency that is used to make meaningful comparisons of monetary indicators of living standards."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Figures expressed in international dollars are adjusted for inflation within countries over time, and for differences in the cost of living between countries."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The goal of such adjustments is to provide a unit whose <i>purchasing power</i> is held fixed over time and across countries, such that one international dollar can buy the same quantity and quality of goods and services no matter where or when it is spent."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/what-are-ppps\">What are Purchasing Power Parity adjustments and why do we need them?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "icd",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "International Classification of Diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) is a manual used by many countries to classify diseases, injuries and causes of death into standard codes. These can be helpful for researchers to analyze data on diseases and causes of death over time and across countries."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Each ICD code represents a specific disease, injury, or cause of death."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The ICD manual has been updated several times in history, to reflect advances in medical knowledge and cultural context, so that diseases and deaths can be analyzed in a consistent manner. The ICD is organized by the World Health Organization (WHO)."
}
]
},
{
"id": "malaria",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Malaria"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes. There are five parasite species that cause malaria in humans. Two of these species \u2013 <i>P. falciparum</i> and <i>P. vivax</i> \u2013 pose the greatest threat."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The first symptoms \u2013 fever, headache and chills \u2013 usually appear 10 to 15 days after the infective mosquito bite and may be mild and difficult to recognize as malaria. Left untreated, <i>P. falciparum</i> malaria can progress to severe illness and death within 24 hours."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd6 Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/malaria\">malaria</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "meningitis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Meningitis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Meningitis is a serious infection of the meninges, the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. The disease can be caused by many different pathogens including bacteria, fungi or viruses, but the highest global burden is seen with bacterial meningitis."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Meningitis can infect people of any age, but mainly affects babies, young children and young people. The disease can occur in a range of situations including sporadic cases, small clusters, or large epidemics throughout the world, with seasonal variations."
}
]
},
{
"id": "polio",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Polio"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Poliomyelitis, often called polio, is a highly infectious viral disease that largely affects children under five years of age."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The virus is transmitted by person-to-person spread, mainly through the fecal-oral route or, less frequently, by a common vehicle (e.g. contaminated water or food). It then multiplies in the intestine, where it can invade the nervous system and cause paralysis."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Paralytic polio refers to cases of paralytic disease, and does not include infections that lack symptoms."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd6 Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/polio\">polio</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "wild-poliovirus",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Wild poliovirus (WPV)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Wild poliovirus refers to <a href=\"#dod:polio\">polio</a> viruses that have come from the environment."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "There are three serotypes of wild poliovirus: wild poliovirus 1, 2 and 3."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Two of the three serotypes have already been eradicated worldwide."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The last case of wild poliovirus serotype 2 was seen in 1999 in India. It was declared globally eradicated by the WHO in 2015."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The last case of wild poliovirus serotype 3 was seen in 2012 in Nigeria and declared eradicated in 2019."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd6 Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/polio\">polio</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "vaccine-derived-poliovirus",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Vaccine-derived poliovirus refers to <a href=\"#dod:polio\">polio</a> viruses that have come from <a href=\"#dod:oral-polio-vaccine\">Oral Polio Vaccines</a> (OPV) in rare circumstances."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "There are three serotypes of vaccine-derived poliovirus: vaccine-derived poliovirus 1, 2 and 3."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These arise the virus used in the oral poliovirus vaccine can, in very rare circumstances, evolve mutations that allow it to cause disease."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "If a population has low immunity to polio, because of low rates of vaccination, these vaccine-derived polioviruses can spread more easily and cause an outbreak."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Since 2021, the world has a new version of the oral poliovirus vaccine called the \u201cnovel Oral Polio Vaccine\u201d (nOPV) that is more genetically stable than the previous vaccine, and can prevent outbreaks of vaccine-derived poliovirus."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Vaccine-derived polioviruses contrast with <a href=\"#dod:wild-poliovirus\">wild poliovirus</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd6 Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/polio\">polio</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "oral-polio-vaccine",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Oral polio vaccine (OPV)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Oral polio vaccines are a type of vaccine against <a href=\"#dod:polio\">polio</a>. They are given orally, into the mouth, through a drop containing the vaccine."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The vaccine contains a live \u201cattenuated\u201d version of the virus. This means the virus has been forced to evolve in a way that makes it mild and prevents it from causing paralysis \u2014 but still able to stimulate our immune system, which allows us to recognize the original virus."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Oral polio vaccines (OPV) contrast with <a href=\"#dod:inactivated-polio-vaccine\">inactivated polio vaccines (IPV)</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd6 Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/polio\">polio</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "inactivated-polio-vaccine",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Inactivated polio vaccine (IPV)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Inactivated polio vaccines are a type of vaccine against <a href=\"#dod:polio\">polio</a>. They are typically given through an injection into muscle or skin."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The vaccine contains \u201cinactivated\u201d versions of the virus, which means the virus has been made inert by chemical compounds, which prevents it from causing disease or spreading."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This inactivated virus still stimulates our immune system, which allows us to recognize the original virus."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Inactivated polio vaccines (IPV) contrast with <a href=\"#dod:oral-polio-vaccine\">oral polio vaccines (OPV)</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd6 Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/polio\">polio</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "pneumonia",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pneumonia"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pneumonia describes a condition of the inflammation of the lungs, specifically in the alveoli, which are millions of tiny air sacs that help us take in oxygen."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In pneumonia, these alveoli become filled with pus and fluid, which makes breathing painful and reduces our ability to take in oxygen from the air we breathe and exhale carbon dioxide. Pneumonia can develop from a range of different infections, which are caused by different pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This includes, for example, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, influenza (flu), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), COVID-19, and more."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Estimates of pneumonia globally tend to be based on a clinical definition of the condition, because of a lack of diagnosis and testing. The clinical definition refers to\u00a0when people develop symptoms including fast breathing and coughing, and may include other lower respiratory tract infections."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/pneumonia\">Pneumonia</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "respiratory-infections",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Respiratory infections"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Respiratory infections are diseases caused by <a href=\"#dod:pathogen\">pathogens</a> that affect the nose, throat, lungs, or related organs. This includes middle ear infections, common colds, influenza, pneumonia, SARS, and COVID-19, among others."
}
]
},
{
"id": "pathogen",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pathogen"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A pathogen is a microorganism \u2013 such as a bacterium, virus, or fungus \u2013 that can cause disease."
}
]
},
{
"id": "parasitic-infection",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Parasitic infection"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A parasitic disease is an illness caused by a parasite, which are organisms that live in or on another organism (the \u2018host\u2019). Parasites can be microscopic, like bacteria or protozoa, or larger, like worms and insects."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Parasitic diseases include <a href=\"#dod:malaria\">malaria</a>, giardiasis, toxoplasmosis, hookworm, roundworm, <a href=\"#dod:schistosomiasis\">schistosomiasis</a>, and more."
}
]
},
{
"id": "schistosomiasis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Schistosomiasis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. These parasitic worms live in some types of freshwater snails."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They can cause infection when larval forms of the parasite enter the body through the skin. The parasite can remain in the body for years, damaging organs like the bladder, kidneys, and liver, causing long-term effects such as infertility. It can also affect people\u2019s ability to work, leading to economic impacts."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Eggs of the parasite can then be spread to other people by contaminating water."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Schistosomiasis can be controlled through large-scale preventive treatment, clean water and sanitation, and snail control."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "preventive-chemotherapy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Preventive chemotherapy"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Preventive Chemotherapy (PC) is when people are given medicines that aim to reduce or prevent certain diseases."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This is often used as a public health strategy against a number of <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical diseases</a> \u2014 including <a href=\"#dod:lymphatic-filariasis\">lymphatic filariasis</a>, <a href=\"#dod:onchocerciasis\">onchocerciasis</a>, <a href=\"#dod:schistosomiasis\">schistosomiasis</a>, <a href=\"#dod:soil-transmitted-helminths\">soil-transmitted helminthiasis</a> and <a href=\"#dod:trachoma\">trachoma</a> \u2014 where inexpensive medications are given to large populations who are at risk."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Preventive chemotherapy is effective against these diseases because they tend to develop slowly and have symptoms that aren\u2019t easily distinguished from other diseases, meaning that diagnosis and targeted treatment to individuals can be difficult to provide, especially in poorer regions."
}
]
},
{
"id": "unintentional-injuries",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unintentional injury"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unintentional injuries are accidents or mishaps which lead to physical harm to a person. They can include falls, traffic accidents, burns, poisonings, drowning, and various other incidents that result from unforeseen circumstances."
}
]
},
{
"id": "alcohol_use",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Alcohol use"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Alcohol use is the consumption of alcoholic beverages. It is associated with health risks including mental and behavioral disorders, alcohol dependence, and major noncommunicable diseases such as liver cirrhosis, cancers, and cardiovascular diseases."
}
]
},
{
"id": "alcohol_use_disorder",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Alcohol use disorder"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Alcohol use disorders are medical conditions characterized by an impaired ability to stop or control alcohol use despite adverse social, occupational, or health consequences."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd8 Find out how alcohol use disorders are diagnosed in <a href=\"https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054\">the International Classification of Diseases manual</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "substance_use_disorder",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Substance use disorder"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Substance use disorders are a wide range of conditions defined by the ICD as being related to the use of psychologically active substances."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd8 Find out how each condition is diagnosed in <a href=\"https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054\">the International Classification of Diseases manual</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "alzheimers",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Alzheimer's"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia. Dementia patients show worsening cognitive function over time, beyond what might be expected from typical aging."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Dementia affects memory, thinking, orientation, comprehension, calculation, learning capacity, language, and judgment. This is commonly accompanied by changes in mood, emotional control, behavior, or motivation."
}
]
},
{
"id": "cancer",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cancer"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cancer describes a group of diseases in which abnormal cells in the body begin to grow and multiply uncontrollably. These cells can form lumps of tissue called tumors, which can interfere with normal bodily functions. Cancerous cells have the potential to spread to other parts of the body (this process is called \u201cmetastasis\u201d), disrupting normal processes and causing serious health problems."
}
]
},
{
"id": "cvd",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cardiovascular disease"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cardiovascular diseases cover all diseases of the heart and blood vessels \u2013 including heart attacks and <a href=\"https://docs.google.com/document/d/1tS43kJ8ckyvaSEOqBBf0WtUtJ3X7T_Yh8J66HQQZS80/edit#dod:stroke\">strokes</a>, <a href=\"https://docs.google.com/document/d/1tS43kJ8ckyvaSEOqBBf0WtUtJ3X7T_Yh8J66HQQZS80/edit#dod:atherosclerosis\">atherosclerosis</a>, <a href=\"https://docs.google.com/document/d/1tS43kJ8ckyvaSEOqBBf0WtUtJ3X7T_Yh8J66HQQZS80/edit#dod:ischemic-heart-disease\">ischemic heart disease</a>, <a href=\"https://docs.google.com/document/d/1tS43kJ8ckyvaSEOqBBf0WtUtJ3X7T_Yh8J66HQQZS80/edit#dod:hypertensive-heart-disease\">hypertensive diseases</a>, <a href=\"https://docs.google.com/document/d/1tS43kJ8ckyvaSEOqBBf0WtUtJ3X7T_Yh8J66HQQZS80/edit#dod:cardiomyopathy\">cardiomyopathy</a>, <a href=\"#dod:rheumatic-heart-disease\">rheumatic heart disease</a>, and more."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They tend to develop gradually with age, especially when people have risk factors like high blood pressure, smoking, alcohol use, poor diet, and air pollution."
}
]
},
{
"id": "chronic_respiratory_disease",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chronic respiratory disease"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chronic respiratory disease refers to a group of long-term conditions that affect the lungs and airways, making it difficult to breathe."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This includes conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and pulmonary fibrosis."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These diseases often involve inflammation or damage to the airways and lung tissue, leading to symptoms such as coughing, shortness of breath, and reduced lung function. Over time, chronic respiratory diseases can affect the body's ability to get enough oxygen, impacting daily activities and overall well-being."
}
]
},
{
"id": "diabetes",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Diabetes"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Diabetes is a medical condition characterized by elevated levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood, which is called \u201chyperglycemia\u201d. This happens when the body has difficulty using or producing a hormone called insulin, which helps regulate blood sugar levels. There are two main types of diabetes:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Type 1 Diabetes: In this type, the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. As a result, people with type 1 diabetes require regular insulin injections or an insulin pump to manage their blood sugar levels. It usually starts in childhood or early adulthood and requires lifelong insulin therapy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Type 2 Diabetes: This type is much more common, and is often linked to lifestyle factors such as obesity, poor diet, and lack of physical activity. In type 2 diabetes, the body becomes resistant to the effects of insulin, and the pancreas may not produce enough insulin to maintain normal blood sugar levels. It can often be managed through a combination of dietary changes, exercise, oral medications, and sometimes insulin injections."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Both types of diabetes can lead to high blood sugar levels, which, if not well managed, can result in various complications affecting the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and blood vessels."
}
]
},
{
"id": "digestive_disease",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Digestive disease"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Digestive diseases refer to a range of conditions affecting the stomach, intestines, liver, and related organs, which disrupt digestion and nutrient absorption."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These can include issues like irritable bowel syndrome, peptic ulcer disease, liver cirrhosis, appendicitis, pancreatitis. Symptoms vary but often involve stomach pain, changes in bowel habits, and discomfort. Treatment often involves dietary changes, medications, and lifestyle adjustments."
}
]
},
{
"id": "drug_use_disorder",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drug use disorders"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drug use disorders are the continued use of drugs such as opioids, amphetamines, cocaine, and cannabis leading to impairments in health, social function, and control over substance use."
}
]
},
{
"id": "cirrhosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chronic liver disease"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chronic liver disease is a condition where the liver gradually becomes damaged and less able to perform its vital functions \u2013\u00a0such as the production of clotting factors and other proteins, the detoxification of harmful products of metabolism, and the excretion of bile.\u000b\u000bIt can be caused by factors like excessive alcohol consumption, viral infections like hepatitis, or certain health conditions. As the liver's health declines, it might lead to symptoms such as fatigue, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), and abdominal discomfort."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cirrhosis is the final stage of chronic liver disease that can eventually lead to liver failure, which can be life-threatening."
}
]
},
{
"id": "parkinsons",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Parkinson's disease"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Parkinson's disease is a brain condition that affects movement control. Symptoms usually begin gradually and worsen over time, as parts of the brain become progressively damaged over many years."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It arises when certain cells in the brain, responsible for producing a chemical called dopamine, become damaged or die. Dopamine helps regulate muscle movements, and its deficiency in Parkinson's leads to symptoms like tremors (shaking), stiffness, and difficulty with balance and coordination."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "As the disease progresses, it can also bring about changes in speech, sleep problems, depression, memory difficulties, and fatigue. Although there's no cure, treatments like medication and therapies can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life for those with Parkinson's."
}
]
},
{
"id": "stroke",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Stroke"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A stroke is a sudden medical event that happens when blood flow to a part of the brain is disrupted."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It can occur due to a blocked blood vessel (<a href=\"#dod:ischemic-stroke\">ischemic stroke</a>) or a burst blood vessel (<a href=\"#dod:hemorrhagic-stroke\">hemorrhagic stroke</a>), which can be serious life-threatening medical conditions."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "When brain cells don't receive enough oxygen and nutrients, they can start to die, leading to potentially lasting damage. Symptoms of a stroke can include sudden numbness or weakness on one side of the body, confusion, trouble speaking or understanding, severe headache, and difficulty with coordination."
}
]
},
{
"id": "drug_use",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drug use"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drug use is the use of opioid, amphetamine, cocaine, cannabis and other drugs. The use of opioid, amphetamine, and cocaine is associated with an increased risk of suicide. Use of injected drugs also has an increased risk of blood-borne infections."
}
]
},
{
"id": "hypertension",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "High blood pressure (hypertension)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "High blood pressure, also called hypertension, is blood pressure that is higher than normal. This means the force of the blood against the walls of blood vessels is consistently too high."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Blood pressure is recorded as two numbers. The first (systolic) represents the pressure in blood vessels when the heart contracts or beats. The second (diastolic) represents the pressure in the vessels when the heart rests between beats."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "High blood pressure is diagnosed if, when it is measured on different days, the systolic blood pressure readings are consistently \u2265140 mmHg, or the diastolic blood pressure readings are consistently \u226590 mmHg."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "High blood pressure increases the risk that people will suffer from <a href=\"#dod:cvd\">cardiovascular diseases</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "hyperglycaemia",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "High blood sugar"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "High blood sugar (hyperglycaemia) is when the level of sugar in the blood is too high. High levels of blood glucose after fasting is a risk factor for <a href=\"#dod:diabetes\">diabetes</a> and <a href=\"#dod:cvd\">cardiovascular diseases</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "garbage-codes",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Garbage codes"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cGarbage codes\u201d are <a href=\"#dod:icd\">ICD codes</a> assigned to causes of death when information like evidence, tests, or medical records are missing."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Examples include \u201csudden death\u201d, \u201cchest pain\u201d, and \u201cunspecified sepsis\u201d. These codes are less useful because they often list only the immediate cause or symptoms, not the underlying reason for death."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-causes-of-death-registered-around-the-world\">How are causes of death registered around the world?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "indoor_air_pollution",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Indoor air pollution"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Indoor air pollution is generated by the use of inefficient and polluting fuels \u2013 such as coal, firewood, crop waste, or dung \u2013 in and around the home. These fuels contain a range of health-damaging pollutants, including small particles that penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream."
}
]
},
{
"id": "low_physical_activity",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Low physical activity"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Physical activity is any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure. It includes walking, cycling, sports, active recreation, and play."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Regular physical activity is proven to help prevent and manage noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) such as heart diseases, stroke, diabetes and several cancers. It also helps prevent hypertension, maintain healthy body weight and can improve mental health, quality of life and well-being."
}
]
},
{
"id": "no_handwashing",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "No access to handwashing"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Handwashing interrupts the transmission of many diseases, particularly diarrheal diseases and respiratory, skin and eye infections. A lack of access to handwashing facilities means these diseases are more likely to spread."
}
]
},
{
"id": "basic-handwashing",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Access to basic handwashing"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Access to basic handwashing facilities refers to a device to facilitate handwashing with soap and water available on the premises. Handwashing facilities may be fixed or mobile, and include a sink with tap water, buckets with taps, tippy-taps, and jugs or basins designated for handwashing."
}
]
},
{
"id": "obesity",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Obesity"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Obesity is defined as having a body-mass index (BMI) above 30."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A person\u2019s BMI is calculated as their weight (in kilograms) divided by their height (in meters) squared. For example, someone measuring 1.60 meters and weighing 64 kilograms has a BMI of 64 / 1.6\u00b2 = 25."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Obesity increases the mortality risk of many conditions, including cardiovascular disease, gastrointestinal disorders, type 2 diabetes, joint and muscular disorders, respiratory problems, and psychological issues."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ring-vaccination",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ring vaccination"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ring vaccination is a strategy to vaccinate the local contacts of someone who was identified as infected with a disease such as smallpox."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This strategy is effective in creating a buffer of immune individuals to halt the spread of the infectious disease. It can also be more quickly effective than vaccinating the entire population. However, it comes with the downside that the disease can spread easily if it is reintroduced from somewhere else."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The ring vaccination strategy was instrumental in the eradication of smallpox."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/smallpox\">smallpox</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ozone_pollution",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ozone pollution"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ozone pollution refers to \u2018tropospheric ozone\u2019 \u2013 that is, ozone which exists in the lower atmosphere, close to the surface. Ozone is formed by the reaction with sunlight (photochemical reaction) of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) from vehicle and industry emissions and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by vehicles, solvents and industry."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Excessive ozone in the air can have a marked effect on human health. It can cause breathing problems, trigger asthma, reduce lung function, and cause lung diseases."
}
]
},
{
"id": "particulate_matter_pollution",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Particulate matter pollution"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Particulate matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) pollution is caused by very small particles that are 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter. These particles are typically produced by the burning of fuels, for example from vehicle exhausts, or from the burning of cooking fuels. These small particles tend to have more adverse health effects because they can enter airways and affect the respiratory system."
}
]
},
{
"id": "secondhand_smoke",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Secondhand smoke"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Secondhand smoke, also called 'passive smoking', is the inhalation of tobacco smoke by someone other than the person smoking."
}
]
},
{
"id": "smoking",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Smoking"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Tobacco smoking is the practice of burning tobacco and ingesting the smoke that is produced. Smoking is a risk factor for many diseases including heart attacks, strokes and cancer. It is the leading risk factor for death in men, globally."
}
]
},
{
"id": "risk-factor",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Risk factor"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A risk factor is a condition or behavior that increases the likelihood of developing a given disease or injury, or an outcome such as death."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The impact of a risk factor is estimated in different ways. For example, a common approach is to estimate the number of deaths that would occur if the risk factor was absent."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Risk factors are not mutually exclusive: people can be exposed to multiple risk factors, which contribute to their disease or death. Because of this, the number of deaths caused by each risk factor is typically estimated separately."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-do-researchers-estimate-the-death-toll-caused-by-each-risk-factor-whether-its-smoking-obesity-or-air-pollution\">How do researchers estimate the death toll caused by each risk factor, whether it\u2019s smoking, obesity or air pollution?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/why-isnt-it-possible-to-sum-up-the-deaths-from-different-risk-factors\">Why isn\u2019t it possible to sum up the death toll from different risk factors?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "unsafe_sanitation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unsafe sanitation"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unsafe sanitation includes practices like open defecation and improper treatment of household wastewater. It is linked to the spread of diseases like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, intestinal worms, and polio."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unsafe sanitation exacerbates impaired growth and development in children and contributes to the problem of antimicrobial resistance."
}
]
},
{
"id": "unsafe_sex",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unsafe sex"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unsafe sex is defined as the risk of disease due to sexual transmission. Unsafe sex is an important risk factor in cervical cancer, HIV and sexually-transmitted infections."
}
]
},
{
"id": "unsafe_water",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unsafe water"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Microbial contamination of drinking water poses the greatest risk to drinking-water safety. It is often the result of contamination with feces. Unsafe water is a risk factor in diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and polio."
}
]
},
{
"id": "internetuser",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Internet user"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An internet user is defined by the International Telecommunication Union as anyone who has accessed the internet from any location in the last three months."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This can be from any type of device, including a computer, mobile phone, personal digital assistant, games machine, digital TV, and other technological devices."
}
]
},
{
"id": "migrant",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Migrant"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Migrants have both an origin and a destination, meaning that international migrants can be viewed from two directions:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- An emigrant is someone leaving their country of birth (origin)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- An immigrant is someone moving to a country that they were not born in (destination)."
}
]
},
{
"id": "refugee",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Refugee"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines refugees in the following way:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cThose in need of international protection, being outside their country of origin because of serious threats against which the authorities of their home country cannot or will not protect them."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In addition, individuals who are outside their country of origin (typically because they have been forcibly displaced across international borders) but who may not qualify as refugees under international or regional law, may in certain circumstances also require international protection, on a temporary or longer-term basis."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This may include, for example, persons who are displaced across an international border in the context of disasters or the adverse effects of climate change but who are not refugees. In such situations, a need for international protection would reflect the inability of the country of origin to protect against serious harm.\u201d"
}
]
},
{
"id": "asylumseeker",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Asylum seeker"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An \u201casylum seeker\u201d is an individual that has an application for asylum pending at any stage in the approval process in a country that is different from their home country."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines asylum in the following way:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cAsylum is a term that is not defined in international law, but has become a universally-recognized term for the protection provided by a country to refugees and other persons in need of international protection on its territory."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The need for international protection arises when a person is outside their home country and unable to return home because they would be at risk there, and their country is unable or unwilling to protect them."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Risks that give rise to a need for international protection classically include those of persecution, threats to life, freedom or physical integrity arising from armed conflict, serious public disorder, or different situations of violence.\u02ee"
}
]
},
{
"id": "internally-displaced",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Internally displaced person"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An internally displaced person is an individual who had to leave their home or place of residence but did not cross an international border."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines internally displaced persons in the following way:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cInternally displaced persons (IDPs) are persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of, or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border. For the purposes of UNHCR\u2019s statistics, this population includes only conflict-generated IDPs to whom the Office extends protection and/or assistance. The IDP population also includes people in an IDP-like situation.\u201d"
}
]
},
{
"id": "host-community",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Host community"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Host community refers to a community that hosts large populations of refugees or internally displaced persons, whether in camps, integrated into households, or independently."
}
]
},
{
"id": "international-protection",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Other people in need of international protextion"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines other people in need of protection in the following way:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cOther people in need of international protection refers to people who are outside their country or territory of origin, typically because they have been forcibly displaced across international borders, who have not been reported under other categories (asylum-seekers, refugees, people in refugee-like situations) but who likely need international protection, including protection against forced return, as well as access to basic services on a temporary or longer-term basis.\u201d"
}
]
},
{
"id": "stateless",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Stateless people"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A stateless person is a person is not considered to be a national of any State."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines stateless individuals in the following way:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cIndividuals under UNHCR\u2019s statelessness mandate are defined under the 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless People as those not considered as nationals by any State under the operation of its law. In other words, they do not possess the nationality of any State. UNHCR statistics refer to people who fall under the organization\u2019s statelessness mandate as those who are stateless according to this international definition."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Data from some countries may also include people with undetermined nationality. These are people who lack proof of possession of any nationality and at the same time have or are regarded as having important links to more than one State.\u201d"
}
]
},
{
"id": "unhcr-concern",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Other persons of concern"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines other persons of concern in the following way:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cOther groups or persons of concern refers to individuals who do not necessarily fall directly into any of the other groups (refugees, asylum-seekers, stateless persons, internally displaced persons) but to whom UNHCR has extended its protection and/or assistance services, based on humanitarian or other special grounds.\u201d"
}
]
},
{
"id": "naturalization",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Naturalization"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Naturalization is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen in a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. This usually includes filing an application or motion and fulfilling certain requirements such as a minimum residency or knowledge of a countries culture and customs."
}
]
},
{
"id": "resettlement",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Resettlement of refugees"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Resettlement is the process by which refugees relocate to another country which has agreed to admit them with a legal status ensuring international protection and ultimately permanent residence."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines resettled refugees in the following way:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cResettled [refugees](#dod:refugee) are those who have who have been resettled to another country. Resettlement is used to assist refugees in countries that cannot provide them with appropriate protection and support. Resettlement is primarily facilitated by UNHCR in most countries around the world, although significant private sponsorship schemes do exist as well (e.g. in Canada).\u201d"
}
]
},
{
"id": "unrwa",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "UNRWA is a UN agency that was established in 1949 to carry out direct relief and works programmes for Palestine refugees."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "UNRWA has a humanitarian and development mandate to \u201cprovide assistance and protection to Palestine refugees pending a just and lasting solution to their plight.\u201d This includes essential service delivery, primarily in the areas of basic education, primary health care and mental health care, relief and social services, microcredit, and emergency assistance, including in situations of armed conflict to registered Palestinian refugees."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They operate in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria the West Bank including East Jerusalem, and Gaza. The Agency does not have a mandate to engage in political negotiations or durable solutions."
}
]
},
{
"id": "emigrant",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Emigrant"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An emigrant is someone leaving their country of birth (origin)."
}
]
},
{
"id": "immigrant",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Immigrant"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An immigrant is someone moving to a country that they were not born in (destination)."
}
]
},
{
"id": "remittances",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Remittances"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Remittances are in-kind cash transfers made from individuals in a given country to households outside of the host country."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Remittances are defined by the World Bank as: \u201cPersonal remittances comprise personal transfers and compensation of employees. Personal transfers consist of all current transfers in cash or in kind made or received by resident households to or from nonresident households. Personal transfers thus include all current transfers between resident and nonresident individuals.\u201d"
}
]
},
{
"id": "remittancecost",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Remittance cost"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Remittance costs are explained by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cThe costs of a remittance transaction include a fee charged by the sending agent, typically paid by the sender, and a currency-conversion fee for delivery of local currency to the beneficiary in another country."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Some smaller operators charge the beneficiary a fee to collect remittances, presumably to account for unexpected exchange-rate movements."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "And remittance agents (especially banks) may earn an indirect fee in the form of interest (or \u201cfloat\u201d) by investing funds before delivering them to the beneficiary. The float can be significant in countries where overnight interest rates are high.\u201d"
}
]
},
{
"id": "netmigration",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Net migration"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Net migration is the total number of immigrants (people moving into a given country) minus the number of emigrants (people moving out of the country)."
}
]
},
{
"id": "netmigrationrate",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Net migration rate"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Net migration rate is the number of immigrants (people moving into a given country) minus the number of emigrants (people moving out of the country) in the previous five years, divided by the person-years lived by the population of the receiving country over that period."
}
]
},
{
"id": "rangelands",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rangelands"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rangelands are grasslands, shrublands, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts that are grazed by domestic livestock or wild animals."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The intensity of grazing on rangelands can vary a lot. That can make it difficult to accurately quantify how much rangelands are used for grazing, and therefore how much is used for food production."
}
]
},
{
"id": "valueaddedperworker",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Value added per worker"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Value added per worker is an important measure of labor productivity."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It tells us how much economic output is generated per unit of labor input."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Researchers calculate the value added per worker by dividing the economic output \u2013 the number of dollars generated \u2013 by the number of workers."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This then gives us a measure of the number of dollars generated per worker."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This can be calculated at the aggregate level, across all sectors of an economy. Or for individual sectors, such as agriculture, industry, or services."
}
]
},
{
"id": "landowner",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Landowner"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A person is considered a landowner if they are the only owner of a plot of land or own it jointly with someone in their own household, or outside of the household."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This means that a plot of land \u2013 and a household \u2013 can have multiple owners. And,households can have multiple plots of land, but with different people identified as the owner of each."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In many countries, land ownership is assigned based on legal documentation and title deeds. But in some countries without official documentation and titles, this data is calculated based on household surveys. In these surveys, households are asked about the ownership of plots of land."
}
]
},
{
"id": "nagoya_protocol",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Nagoya Protocol"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Nagoya Protocol is an international agreement that was adopted in 2010 under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. It aims to ensure that the benefits of genetic resources are shared fairly and equitably between countries and the people who provide them."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Protocol also sets out rules for accessing genetic resources and sharing the benefits that arise from their use. It applies to both traditional knowledge and modern genetic resources, and is intended to protect the rights of indigenous and local communities that are often associated with these resources."
}
]
},
{
"id": "invasive_species",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Invasive species"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An \"alien\" species is described as one which has been introduced outside its natural distribution range because of human activity. Once an alien species becomes a threat to native biodiversity it is known as an \"invasive alien species\". These species can be plants, animals, or other organisms, and they can cause harm to the environment, economy, or human health."
}
]
},
{
"id": "invasive_alien_species",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Invasive alien species"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An \"alien\" species is described as one which has been introduced outside its natural distribution range because of human activity. Once an alien species becomes a threat to native biodiversity it is known as an \"invasive alien species\". These species can be plants, animals, or other organisms, and they can cause harm to the environment, economy, or human health."
}
]
},
{
"id": "key_biodiversity_area",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Key Biodiversity Area (KBA)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A Key Biodiversity Area is a site that makes a significant contribution to the global persistence of biodiversity. This is often the case if a site contains many unique species. It can also mean that the site is home to a species that isn\u2019t found anywhere else, or is only found in a few other locations."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The IUCN uses <a href=\"https://portals.iucn.org//library//sites//library//files//documents//2016-048.pdf\">11 criteria to assess</a> whether a site is a KBA. These cover five categories: threatened biodiversity, geographically restricted biodiversity, ecological integrity, biological processes (e.g. nesting) and irreplaceability."
}
]
},
{
"id": "protected_area",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Protected area"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A protected area is a clearly defined geographical space that is recognised, and managed through legal or other effective means. Protected areas are managed to preserve their ecosystem services and cultural values over the long-term."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "There are seven different categories of protected areas, ranging from strict nature reserves which are protected from all but light human use; to protected areas which allow the sustainable use of natural resources (such as logging, or fishing)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Protected areas can be in the ocean (a marine protected area \u2013 MPA) or on land."
}
]
},
{
"id": "enso_cycle",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Cycle"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a periodic variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean that affects the climate of regions in the tropics and subtropics. The warming phase of the sea temperature is known as El Ni\u00f1o, and the cooling phase as La Ni\u00f1a."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The ENSO cycle is defined by changes in atmospheric pressure. El Ni\u00f1o is accompanied by high air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific, and La Ni\u00f1a with low air surface pressure. The two periods last several months each and tend to occur every few years. The intensity of each cycle can vary."
}
]
},
{
"id": "taxonomic_group",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Taxonomic group"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A taxonomic group is a category in the scientific classification of living things, based on shared characteristics and genetic similarity. It is arranged in a hierarchical system, with each group being more specific than the one above it, and all groups forming the entire classification of living things."
}
]
},
{
"id": "population",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Population"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A population is a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same geographic area. A species will often have multiple or many populations, each living in a different area."
}
]
},
{
"id": "endemic_species",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Endemic species"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Endemic species are plants and animals that only exist in one geographical area. Endemic species are more common in isolated environments, such as islands, due to the unique conditions and barriers to immigration. As a result of long-term geographic isolation, it is more likely that distinct and unique species will evolve in these isolated areas"
}
]
},
{
"id": "extinction_risk",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Extinction risk"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) evaluates the risk of a species going extinct <a href=\"https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/RL-2001-001.pdf\">based on several criteria</a>, including their geographical range and current population size."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The IUCN publishes these assessments in its flagship Red List."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Species are sorted into nine categories, extending through: Not Evaluated, Data Deficient, Least Concern, Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered, Extinct in the Wild and Extinct."
}
]
},
{
"id": "red_list_index",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Red List Index"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Red List Index (RLI) tracks the status of species groups within the IUCN\u2019s Red List, which is a measure of species extinction risk."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The RLI is an index between 0 and 1, which changes over time based on changes in a species extinction risk. A declining RLI trend indicates that the risk of extinction among the species included in the index is increasing."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "To be included in the RLI, species groups need to be fully assessed. Currently, only mammals, birds, corals, amphibians, and cycads have the necessary data to be included."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This means the RLI is an aggregate index based on these species groups only. An RLI can also be calculated for individual species groups or for countries."
}
]
},
{
"id": "coral_bleaching",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Coral bleaching"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Corals contain microscopic algae that photosynthesize, providing corals with the majority of their energy. When exposed to warmer waters, corals can expel their algal symbionts, meaning they lose their source of energy. Without their algae, corals turn pale; causing them to look \u2018bleached\u2019. Several successive bleaching events can cause coral to die."
}
]
},
{
"id": "msy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Maximum Sustainable Yield"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) is defined as the greatest average amount of catch that can be harvested in the long-term from a fish stock under constant and current environmental conditions (e.g., habitat, water conditions, species composition and interactions, and anything that could affect birth, growth, or death rates of the stock), without affecting the long-term productivity of the fish stock."
}
]
},
{
"id": "fish-stock",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Fish stocks"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Fish stocks are subpopulations of a particular species of fish which have common parameters such as location, growth and mortality which define their population dynamics."
}
]
},
{
"id": "gravitational_waves",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Gravitational waves"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of space-time that are created when two massive objects, such as black holes or neutron stars, collide or interact. They move at the speed of light, but they are extremely difficult to detect because they are so small and faint. It wasn't until the development of advanced technology like LIGO (the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) that researchers were able to detect these waves for the first time in 2015."
}
]
},
{
"id": "homicide",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Homicide"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The killing of a person by another with intent to cause death or injury."
}
]
},
{
"id": "age_standardized",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Age standardization"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Age standardization is an adjustment that makes it possible to compare populations with different age structures by standardizing them to a common reference population."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/age-standardization\">How does age standardization make health metrics comparable?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "low_earth_orbit",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Low Earth orbit"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an Earth-centered orbit with an altitude of 2,000 kilometers or less (approximately one-third of Earth\u2019s radius). This is the orbit where most artificial objects in outer space live. LEOs are often used for satellites, including those for communication, Earth observation, and space stations due to their proximity to Earth\u2019s surface, facilitating shorter communication times and detailed surface imaging."
}
]
},
{
"id": "medium_earth_orbit",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Medium Earth orbit"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A medium Earth orbit (MEO) is characterized by an altitude ranging from 2,000 kilometers to just below the geostationary orbit at approximately 35,786 kilometers above Earth. MEOs are mainly used for navigation satellite systems like the Global Positioning System (GPS), as their higher altitude allows for a larger coverage area with fewer satellites. This orbit is also beneficial for satellites that require a balance between Earth coverage and signal delay, making it a strategic choice for global navigation and communication systems."
}
]
},
{
"id": "geostationary_orbit",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Geostationary orbit"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A geostationary orbit (GEO) is a specific orbit located approximately 35,786 kilometers above the Earth's equator. This orbit allows satellites to match the Earth\u2019s rotation, effectively remaining stationary over a fixed point. This unique characteristic makes GEO ideal for communication, weather satellites, and certain broadcasting systems that benefit from a constant position relative to the Earth's surface, ensuring continuous coverage over specific geographical areas."
}
]
},
{
"id": "high_earth_orbit",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "High Earth orbit"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A high Earth orbit (HEO) refers to orbits above the altitude of a geostationary orbit (above 35,786 kilometers from the Earth\u2019s surface). These orbits are particularly useful for satellites that require a broad field of view of the Earth, such as for monitoring large areas or for scientific observations of the Earth's atmosphere and space environment. Due to their high altitude, satellites in HEO have longer orbital periods and can observe larger portions of the Earth's surface than lower orbits."
}
]
},
{
"id": "moore_law",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Moore's law"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles about every two years, thanks to improvements in production. It was first described by Gordon E. Moore, the co-founder of Intel, in 1965."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/moores-law\">What is Moore\u2019s Law?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "depressive_disorders",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Depressive disorders"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Depressive disorders are defined by the ICD as a group of conditions that involve significant, persistent feelings of sadness or a loss of interest, along with several other symptoms."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-mental-illnesses-defined\">How are mental illnesses defined?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd8 Find out how each illness is diagnosed in <a href=\"https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054\">the International Classification of Diseases manual</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "odp_tonnes",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ozone-depleting tonnes (ODP tonnes)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ozone-depleting tonnes measure the total potential of substances to deplete the ozone layer. Some substances that deplete the ozone layer are 'stronger' than others, meaning one tonne will cause greater damage than one tonne of another. ODP tonnes are calculated by multiplying a substance's emissions in tonnes, by its 'ozone-depleting potential'."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ozone-depleting potential measures how much depletion a substance causes relative to CFC-11, which has a value of 1.0. If one tonne of a gas caused twice the depletion of CFC-11, it would have a potential of 2.0."
}
]
},
{
"id": "qubits",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Quantum bits"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Quantum bits, or qubits, are the basic units of quantum computing. Unlike classical bits that store information as 0 or 1, qubits can exist in multiple states simultaneously, enabling complex calculations and enhanced computing power."
}
]
},
{
"id": "anxiety_disorders",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Anxiety disorders"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Anxiety disorders are defined by the ICD as a group of conditions that involve feelings of intense fear and distress, along with other physical symptoms."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-mental-illnesses-defined\">How are mental illnesses defined?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd8 Find out how each illness is diagnosed in <a href=\"https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054\">the International Classification of Diseases manual</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "schizophrenia",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Schizophrenia"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Schizophrenia is defined by the ICD as a condition that involves significant problems in perceiving reality, difficulty with memory and attention, and changes in behavior and movement."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-mental-illnesses-defined\">How are mental illnesses defined?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd8 Find out how each illness is diagnosed in <a href=\"https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054\">the International Classification of Diseases manual</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "bipolar_disorder",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Bipolar disorder"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Bipolar disorder is defined by the ICD as a condition that involves two different sets of symptoms. One involves depressive symptoms, while the other involves significantly increased excitement, irritability and energy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-mental-illnesses-defined\">How are mental illnesses defined?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd8 Find out how each illness is diagnosed in <a href=\"https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054\">the International Classification of Diseases manual</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "eating_disorder",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Eating disorders"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Eating disorders are defined by the ICD as a group of conditions that involve abnormal behaviors and preoccupations with food, along with strong concerns about body weight and shape."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-mental-illnesses-defined\">How are mental illnesses defined?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd8 Find out how each illness is diagnosed in <a href=\"https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054\">the International Classification of Diseases manual</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "major_depression",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Major depression"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Major depression is a condition that involves feeling persistent sadness or a loss of interest, along with several other symptoms, for at least two weeks."
}
]
},
{
"id": "anorexia_nervosa",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Anorexia nervosa"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Anorexia nervosa is defined by the ICD as a condition that involves having persistent patterns of behavior that are aimed at reaching or maintaining an abnormally low body weight, along with an extreme fear of weight gain."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-mental-illnesses-defined\">How are mental illnesses defined?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd8 Find out how each illness is diagnosed in <a href=\"https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054\">the International Classification of Diseases manual</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "bulimia_nervosa",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Bulimia nervosa"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Bulimia nervosa is defined by the ICD as a condition that involves having frequent recurring episodes of binge eating, as well as inappropriate behaviours to prevent weight gain. Patients have an excessive preoccupation or significant distress about their body weight or shape."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-mental-illnesses-defined\">How are mental illnesses defined?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd8 Find out how each illness is diagnosed in <a href=\"https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f334423054\">the International Classification of Diseases manual</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "rotavirus",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rotavirus"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rotavirus is a contagious virus that can cause severe diarrhea. It is among the most common causes of diarrheal deaths in children."
}
]
},
{
"id": "cholera",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cholera"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cholera is a severe diarrheal disease caused by the bacteria <i>Vibrio cholerae</i>. It is spread through contaminated water and food, typically in areas lacking access to clean water and sanitation. Although cholera is easily treatable it can kill within hours or days if untreated."
}
]
},
{
"id": "indicator-2-4-1",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Sub-indicators of indicator 2.4.1"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The 11 sub-indicators used to measure this indicator are:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "1) Land productivity: Farm output value per hectare"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "2) Profitability: Net farm income"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "3) Resilience: Risk mitigation mechanisms"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "4) Soil health: Prevalence of soil degradation"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "5) Water use: Variation in water availability"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "6) Fertilizer pollution risk: Management of fertilizers"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "7) Pesticide risk: Management of pesticides"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "8) Biodiversity: Use of agro-biodiversity-supportive practices"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "9) Decent employment: Wage rate in agriculture"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "10) Food security: Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "11) Land tenure: Secure tenure rights to land"
}
]
},
{
"id": "indicator-5-a-2",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Proxies of equality in land rights"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The six legal proxies used to measure this indicator are:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "1) Joint registration of land is compulsory or encouraged through economic incentives"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "2) Compulsory spousal consent for land transactions"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "3) Women\u2019s and girls\u2019 equal inheritance rights"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "4) Allocation of financial resources to increase women\u2019s ownership and control over land, in legal systems that recognize customary land tenure"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "5) The existence of explicit protection of the land rights of women"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "6) Mandatory quotas for women\u2019s participation in land management and administration institutions."
}
]
},
{
"id": "indicator-5-6-2",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Regulations on access to sexual health care"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The 13 sexual and reproductive health components where information is collected on the existence of i) specific legal enablers (positive laws, and regulations) and ii) specific legal barriers are:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "1) Maternity care"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "2) Life-saving commodities for reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "3) Abortion"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "4) Post-abortion care"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "5) Contraception"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "6) Consent for contraceptive services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "7) Emergency contraception"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "8) Comprehensive sexuality education law"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "9) Comprehensive sexuality education curriculum"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "10) HIV testing and counselling"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "11) HIV treatment and care"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "12) Confidentiality of health status for men and women living with HIV"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "13) HPV vaccine"
}
]
},
{
"id": "neglected-tropical-diseases",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Neglected tropical diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Neglected tropical diseases is a category that refers to infectious diseases that are: neglected by public health funding, disproportionately affect the extremely poor, and tend to be found in tropical regions of the world."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The World Health Organization lists the following 20 diseases under the category:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:buruli-ulcer\">Buruli ulcer</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:chagas-disease\">Chagas disease</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:chromoblastomycosis\">Chromoblastomycosis and other deep mycoses</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:taeniasis-cysticercosis\">Cysticercosis</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:chikungunya\">Chikungunya</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:dengue\">Dengue</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:guinea-worm\">Guinea worm disease (\u201cdracunculiasis\u201d)</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:echinococcosis\">Echinococcosis</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:foodborne-trematodiases\">Foodborne trematodiases</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:african-trypanosomiasis\">Sleeping sickness (\u201cAfrican trypanosomiasis\u201d)</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:leishmaniasis\">Leishmaniasis</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:leprosy\">Leprosy (\u201cHansen's disease\u201d)</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:lymphatic-filariasis\">Lymphatic filariasis (\u201celephantiasis\u201d)</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:mycetoma\">Mycetoma</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:onchocerciasis\">River blindness (\u201conchocerciasis\u201d)</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:rabies\">Rabies</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:scabies\">Scabies and other ectoparasites</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:schistosomiasis\">Schistosomiasis</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:soil-transmitted-helminths\">Soil-transmitted helminthiases</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:snakebite-envenoming\">Snakebite envenoming</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:taeniasis-cysticercosis\">Taeniasis</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:trachoma\">Trachoma</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <a href=\"#dod:yaws\">Yaws</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "buruli-ulcer",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Buruli ulcer"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Buruli ulcer is a skin disease that causes severe sores and disfigurement if not treated early. It is caused by bacteria called <i>Mycobacterium ulcerans</i>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The disease starts as a small swelling, but if untreated, it turns into a large open sore or ulcer that destroys skin, muscles, and sometimes even bone. As the ulcers get bigger, they can permanently disfigure and disable the affected body part."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Buruli ulcer can be treated with antibiotics and surgery to remove the affected tissue."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "chromoblastomycosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chromoblastomycosis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chromoblastomycosis and other deep mycoses are serious fungal infections that can lead to deformities, disabilities and sometimes cancer."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They are caused by certain fungi entering the body through cuts or skin wounds, often on the feet or legs."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "People experience skin sores, bumps under the skin, and progressive destruction of surrounding tissue. If untreated, these deep fungal infections can spread to bones and other organs, and cause deformities and life-threatening complications."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Long-term antifungal treatment and surgery are often required."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "taeniasis-cysticercosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Taeniasis and cysticercosis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Taeniasis and cysticercosis are infections caused by the same tapeworm species <i>Taenia solium</i>. It can be ingested from undercooked beef or pork containing the larval cysts of some tapeworm species."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b>Taeniasis</b> is an intestinal infection of the adult stage of the tapeworm, which can cause digestive problems and nutritional deficiencies."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "People have symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss and general discomfort from having the adult tapeworm residing in the intestines."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b>Cysticercosis</b> describes the infection with the larval stage of the tapeworm. The larvae migrate around the body and form cysts. These can also form in the brain, which can cause seizures. This is called neurocysticercosis."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Taeniasis is treated with antiparasitic medications. Cysticercosis is more difficult to treat and can require surgery to remove the cysts."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "chromoblastomycosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chromoblastomycosis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chromoblastomycosis and other deep mycoses are serious fungal infections that can lead to deformities, disabilities and sometimes cancer."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They are caused by certain fungi entering the body through cuts or skin wounds, often on the feet or legs."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "People experience skin sores, bumps under the skin, and progressive destruction of surrounding tissue. If untreated, these deep fungal infections can spread to bones and other organs, and cause deformities and life-threatening complications."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Long-term antifungal treatment and surgery are often required."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "chagas-disease",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chagas disease"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chagas disease can severely damage the heart and digestive system over time if left untreated."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, spread through the feces of \"kissing bugs\", which can live in walls and cracks in rural or suburban areas."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Early symptoms include fever, fatigue, body aches, and rashes. But the parasites keep living in the body for life if untreated, gradually damaging the heart muscle and digestive system over decades, leading to an enlarged heart, heart failure, severe digestive issues, and potentially death."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chagas disease can be treated with antiparasitic medications."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "dengue",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Dengue"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Dengue fever is a potentially fatal disease caused by dengue virus, which is spread by mosquito bites."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It causes high fevers, rashes, muscle and joint pains. Although many people recover, some develop life-threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome, where they experience severe bleeding, organ impairment, and leaking of blood plasma, which can lead to death without urgent care."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "chikungunya",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chikungunya"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chikungunya is an infectious disease caused by the chikungunya virus, which is spread by mosquitoes."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It causes sudden high fevers and extremely painful joint swelling and stiffness, which can be very severe or even disabling. Other symptoms include headaches, muscle aches, nausea and rashes."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Most people recover soon, but some develop joint pain that persists for months or years, severely affecting their daily life."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "echinococcosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Echinococcosis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Echinococcosis is an infectious disease caused by a parasitic tapeworm that can lead to severe disease of the lungs or liver and potentially death."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is caused by ingesting eggs of the <i>Echinococcus</i> tapeworm species, often from contact with infected dogs, which can initially lead to symptoms like abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Treatment involves surgery or antiparasitic medications."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "scabies",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Scabies"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Scabies is a highly contagious skin disease caused by the mite <i>Sarcoptes scabiei</i>, which leads to intense itching and rashes."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The mites burrow under the skin and lay eggs, causing an allergic reaction. Other ectoparasites like lice and fleas can also cause itching, rashes, and skin irritation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The mites spread through close person-to-person or skin-to-skin contact, and can be treated with antiparasitic medications."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "soil-transmitted-helminths",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Soil-transmitted helminths"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Soil-transmitted helminths are parasitic worms that cause diseases that affect physical and intellectual development, especially in children."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They include different species such as roundworm, whipworm and hookworms, which can infect people through contact with soil contaminated by human feces containing worm eggs."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "People develop symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, malnutrition and related complications."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These infections can be treated with deworming medications and improved sanitation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Soil-transmitted helminthiases are classified as <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical diseases</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "foodborne-trematodiases",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Foodborne trematodiases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Foodborne trematodiases are parasitic worm infections that can cause liver and lung disease if untreated."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They are caused by ingesting undercooked fish, crustaceans, or vegetables that contain microscopic parasitic worms called trematodes or flukes."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "People first develop symptoms like fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and blood in stools."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Over time, the worms can migrate to the liver, lungs, or other organs, causing severe complications like obstructing the bile duct, liver scarring, and lung problems."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These infections can be treated with antiparasitic medications."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They are classified as <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical diseases</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "mycetoma",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Mycetoma"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Mycetoma is a destructive skin and bone infection that can lead to deformity and disability if left untreated."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It can be caused by some different species of fungi or bacteria, which can enter the body through minor skin injuries, often on the feet or hands."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "If untreated, the infection spreads to underlying bone, causing severe deformities."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Mycetoma requires long-term antifungal or antibiotic treatment, often with surgery, potentially including amputations. It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "maternal-mortality",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Maternal mortality"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Maternal mortality relates to the death of women during or shortly after pregnancy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This is defined differently by different organizations."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "According to the <a href=\"#dod:icd\">ICD-11</a>, maternal deaths are defined as the deaths of women while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, from maternal conditions, but excluding accidental or incidental causes of death."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Maternal conditions are defined from the \u201c<a href=\"#dod:underlying-cause-of-death\">underlying cause of death</a>\u201d on death certificates."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In the WHO Mortality Database and IHME GBD (estimates up to 2019), maternal deaths up to 1 year of termination of pregnancy are also included."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In countries where cause of death data is lacking, estimates (such as in the WHO GHO and IHME GBD) include deaths during or shortly after pregnancy, <b>irrespective</b> of the cause \u2014 this means they include causes incidental to the pregnancy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more on our page: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/maternal-mortality\">Maternal mortality</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "guinea-worm",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Guinea worm"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Guinea worm is a parasitic worm that causes guinea worm disease (also known as \u201cdracunculiasis\u201d). which is a painful and debilitating disease of the bones, connective tissue, and joints."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The worm\u2019s larvae can be ingested from contaminated water, and grow into adult worms whose growth in the body can lead to arthritic conditions. The disease used to be common in Asia, the Middle East, and many countries in Africa, but it is close to eradication."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/guinea-worm-path-eradication\">Guinea worm disease is close to being eradicated \u2013 how was this progress achieved?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "rabies",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rabies"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rabies is a viral disease that spreads from the bite of an infected animal, such as a rabid dog."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The disease is fatal without vaccination. The disease causes brain inflammation, fever, and delirium."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rabies vaccines are typically given after a bite, but some vaccines are used as preventive treatment."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "yaws",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Yaws"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Yaws is a chronic infectious disease that can be disfiguring and debilitating. It is caused by the bacterium <i>Treponema pallidum</i>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It primarily affects the skin, bones, and connective tissue: patients develop highly contagious skin lumps and ulcers and bone deformities, and spreads through direct contact with the wounds of an infected person."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The infection can be effectively treated with antibiotics, such as azithromycin or benzathine penicillin."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "smallpox",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Smallpox"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Smallpox was a severe and contagious disease caused by the variola virus."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Patients infected by the virus developed fever, body aches, and a distinctive rash that developed into fluid-filled blisters."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The disease was known for its high mortality rate and the permanent scarring it often left on survivors. Historically, it affected people across various continents. Through a global vaccination campaign, smallpox became the first disease to be eradicated by human effort."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/smallpox\">smallpox</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "family-planning",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Family planning"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Family planning allows people to attain their desired number of children, if any, and to determine the spacing of their pregnancies. It is achieved through use of contraceptive methods and the treatment of infertility."
}
]
},
{
"id": "modern-contraception",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Modern contraception"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Modern contraceptive methods include: oral hormonal pills, intrauterine devices (IUDs), male or female condoms, emergency contraception, implant, sterilization, injectables, and vaginal barrier methods."
}
]
},
{
"id": "diarrhea",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Diarrheal disease episode"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Diarrheal disease episodes are defined as three or more loose stools in a 24-hour period."
}
]
},
{
"id": "improved-sanitation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Improved sanitation facilities"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Improved sanitation facilities are those designed to hygienically separate excreta from human contact, and include: flush/pour flush toilets connected to piped sewer systems, septic tanks or pit latrines; pit latrines with slabs (including ventilated pit latrines), and composting toilets."
}
]
},
{
"id": "population-growth-rate",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Population growth rate"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Population growth rate explains the change in population over a given interval of time. This is often expressed as the annual growth rate."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United Nations calculates this as an exponential growth rate. It calculates it by taking the natural logarithm of the annual change, which is the population in that year compared to the previous year. For example, the change in population from 2017 to 2018. This is expressed as a percentage."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<i>Natural population growth</i> rate is the expected change in population from births and deaths only. It does not include changes as a result of migration."
}
]
},
{
"id": "fertility-rate",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Fertility rate"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The total fertility rate is a <a href=\"#dod:period-measure\">period metric</a>. It summarizes fertility rates across all age groups in one particular year."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "For a given year, the total fertility rate represents the average number of children that would be born to a hypothetical woman if she (1) lived to the end of her childbearing years, and (2) experienced the same age-specific fertility rates throughout her whole reproductive life as the age-specific fertility rates seen in that particular year."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is different from the <i>actual</i> average number of children that women have."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The fertility rate should not be confused with biological fertility, which is about the ability of a person to conceive."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/fertility-rate\">Fertility rate</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "un-projection-scenarios",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "UN projection scenarios"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The UN's World Population Prospects provides a range of projected scenarios of population change. These rely on different assumptions in fertility, mortality and/or migration patterns to explore different demographic futures."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more: <a href=\"https://population.un.org/wpp/DefinitionOfProjectionScenarios/#:~:text=The%20five%20fertility%20scenarios%20are,and%20instant%2Dreplacement%2Dfertility.\">Definition of Projection Scenarios (UN)</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "diarrheal-diseases",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Diarrheal diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Diarrheal diseases are a group of illnesses that are usually caused by viral, bacterial, or protist infections. They tend to be spread through contaminated food or drinking water, or between people through the fecal-oral route or direct contact."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "There are many public health measures that can prevent diarrheal disease, including sanitation, clean drinking water, pasteurization, food safety, and hand washing with soap."
}
]
},
{
"id": "oral-rehydration-therapy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Oral rehydration therapy"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) is the use of treatments to replenish fluids lost, especially from diarrhea. It can include <a href=\"#dod:oral-rehydration-salts\">oral rehydration salts</a>, recommended home-made fluids, and feeding practices."
}
]
},
{
"id": "oral-rehydration-salts",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Oral rehydration salts"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Oral rehydration salts (ORS) are a mixture of salt and sugar dissolved in clean water. This mixture is used to treat dehydration caused by severe diarrhea, heat stroke or other conditions."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It can be easily prepared by community health workers and caregivers at home."
}
]
},
{
"id": "e-coli",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<i>E. coli"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "</i>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Escherichia coli (<i>E. coli</i>) is a bacterium that is commonly found in the gut of humans and warm-blooded animals. Most strains of <i>E. coli</i> are harmless, but some \u2013 such as Shiga toxin-producing <i>E. coli</i> (STEC) \u2013 can cause severe foodborne disease."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It can be spread through contaminated foods, such as raw meat, milk, and vegetables, or between people through the fecal-oral route or direct contact."
}
]
},
{
"id": "typhoid-fever",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Typhoid fever"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium <i>Salmonella Typhi</i>. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once <i>Salmonella Typhi</i> bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Symptoms include prolonged high fever, fatigue, headache, nausea, abdominal pain, and constipation or diarrhea."
}
]
},
{
"id": "paratyphoid-fever",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Paratyphoid fever"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Paratyphoid fever is an infection caused by the bacterium <i>Salmonella Paratyphi</i>. It causes similar clinical syndromes to typhoid fever, including fevers, chills, abdominal pain, and can be a life-threatening illness in severe cases."
}
]
},
{
"id": "non-typhoidal-salmonella",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Invasive non-typhoidal salmonella"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Non-typhoidal salmonellae are a group of bacteria that cause inflammation of the stomach and intestines."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They can sometimes spread beyond the gut into the bloodstream, causing invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella (iNTS), especially in people who have weak immune systems, for example those with malnutrition or HIV/AIDS."
}
]
},
{
"id": "equivalization",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Equivalization"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Equivalization is a statistical technique used in household income surveys to allow for fairer comparisons in living standards between households of different sizes or age compositions."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "With each additional member, a household's needs grow but \u2013 due to economies of scale in consumption \u2013 not in a proportional way. A household with three members does not need three times the housing space, electricity, heating etc. as a single-person household to achieve the same standard of living."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In the process of equivalization, each household's actual income level is scaled up or down to find the \u201cequivalent\u201d income that would be needed for a given standard household size to achieve that same standard of living. This requires making assumptions about the economies of scale in household consumption, and different 'equivalence scales' for making such an adjustment are in common use."
}
]
},
{
"id": "v-dem",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "V-Dem"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) project publishes data and research on democracy and human rights."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It relies on evaluations by around 3,500 country experts and supplementary work by its own researchers to assess political institutions and the protection of rights."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The project is managed by the V-Dem Institute, based at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how do researchers measure democracy?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/vdem-electoral-democracy-data\">The \u2018Varieties of Democracy\u2019 data: how do researchers measure democracy?</a>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/vdem-human-rights-data\">The \u2018Varieties of Democracy\u2019 data: how do researchers measure human rights?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "polity",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Polity"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Polity project publishes data on democracy based on evaluations of its own researchers."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The project is managed by the Center for Systemic Peace."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how do researchers measure democracy?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "freedom-house",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Freedom House"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Freedom House publishes data on democracy and human rights."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It relies on evaluations by country and regional experts as well as their own researchers to assess political institutions and the protection of rights."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how do researchers measure democracy?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "bertelsmann-transformation-index",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Bertelsmann Transformation Index"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Bertelsmann Transformation Index (BTI) project publishes data and research on democracy and human rights."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It relies on evaluations by nearly 300 country, regional, and general experts, as well as supplementary representative surveys of regular citizens, to assess political institutions and the protection of rights."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The project is managed by the Bertelsmann Foundation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how do researchers measure democracy?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "economist-intelligence-unit",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Economist Intelligence Unit"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Economist Intelligence Unit publishes data and research on democracy and human rights."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It relies on evaluations by its own country experts, supplemented by representative surveys of regular citizens to assess political institutions and the protection of rights."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Economist Intelligence Unit is the research and analysis division of The Economist Group, the sister company of The Economist newspaper."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how do researchers measure democracy?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "clean-cooking-fuels",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Access to clean fuels for cooking"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Clean cooking fuels are defined as those that, when burned, emit less than the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended amounts of air pollutants (specifically, particulate matter). They reduce the burden of air pollution \u2013 and its health impacts \u2013 for households that use them."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The following fuels are defined as \u2018clean\u2019: natural gas, biogas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electricity, solar, , and alcohol fuels including ethanol."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Polluting of \u2018non-clean\u2019 fuels include solid fuels such as unprocessed biomass (wood or dung), charcoal, coal, and kerosene."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more from the <a href=\"https://www.who.int/tools/clean-household-energy-solutions-toolkit/module-7-defining-clean\">World Health Organization (WHO)</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "global-hunger-index",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Global Hunger Index"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Global Hunger Index (GHI) tries to capture the multidimensional nature of hunger, by combining four component indicators into one index score."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The GHI is calculated from four indicators: undernourishment (the share of people that do not get enough calories to meet their energy requirements); <a href=\"#dod:wasting\">childhood wasting</a>; <a href=\"#dod:stunting\">childhood stunting</a>; and child mortality."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An increase in a country's GHI score indicates that the hunger situation is worsening, while a decrease in the score indicates an improvement in the hunger situation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more from the Global Hunger Index\u2019s <a href=\"https://www.globalhungerindex.org/methodology.html\">methodology</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "food-loss-index",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Food loss index"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The food loss index measures how losses in the food supply chain have changed relative to 2015."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Food \u201closses\u201d are defined as the loss or wastage of food from the farm up to the retail level. Pre-harvest losses, and retail and consumer waste are not included."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Food losses are measured across five food groups: cereals & pulses; fruits & vegetables; roots, tubers and oil crops; animal products; and seafood."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The percentage of food that is lost across the supply chain in 2015 is given a value of 100 as a baseline. If the index value is greater than 100 then food losses have increased since 2015. If the value is less than 100, they\u2019ve decreased."
}
]
},
{
"id": "biomass",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Biomass"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Biomass is a unit used as a way of measuring the amount of living material in a given environment."
}
]
},
{
"id": "chlorophyll-a",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chlorophyll-a"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chlorophyll-a is a widely used proxy for phytoplankton biomass and an indicator for changes in phytoplankton production."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "High levels of chlorophyll-a indicate pollution from sources suce as fertilizers, sewage or urban runoff."
}
]
},
{
"id": "oda",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Official Development Assistance"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Financial flows to countries and territories on the Development Assistance Committee list of recipients and to multilateral development institutions that are:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "1) Provided by official agencies, including state and local governments, or by their executive agencies"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "2) Are administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing countries as their main objective"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "3) Are concessional in character, with a grant element of 10-45 per cent, depending on the type of loan and the specific recipient."
}
]
},
{
"id": "fdi",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Foreign direct investment"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A financial transaction to acquire a lasting management interest (10 percent or more of voting stock) in an enterprise operating in an economy other than that of the investor."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It includes equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, and other long-term capital."
}
]
},
{
"id": "per-capita",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Per capita"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "'Per capita' here means that each person (including children) is attributed an equal share of the total income received by all members of their household."
}
]
},
{
"id": "gini",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Gini coefficient"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Gini coefficient is the most commonly used measure of inequality."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is typically used as a measure of income inequality, but it can be used to measure the inequality of any distribution \u2013 such as the distribution of wealth, or even life expectancy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It measures inequality on a scale from 0 to 1, where higher values indicate higher inequality. This can sometimes be shown as a percentage from 0 to 100%, this is then called the \u2018Gini Index\u2019."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A value of 0 indicates perfect equality \u2013 where everyone has the same income. A value of 1 indicates perfect inequality \u2013 where one person receives all the income, and everyone else receives nothing."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/what-is-the-gini-coefficient\">Measuring inequality: What is the Gini coefficient?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "atkinson",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Atkinson index"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Atkinson index is a measure of inequality."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is typically used as a measure of income inequality, but it can be used to measure the inequality of any distribution \u2013 such as the distribution of wealth, or even life expectancy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It measures inequality on a scale from 0 to 1, where higher values indicate higher inequality. This can sometimes be shown as a percentage from 0 to 100%."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A value of 0 indicates perfect equality \u2013 where everyone has the same income. A value of 1 indicates perfect inequality \u2013 where one person receives all the income, and everyone else receives nothing."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "There are different varieties of the index, depending on \u03b5, the inequality aversion parameter. The parameter defines how sensitive the index is to changes in the lower end of the distribution."
}
]
},
{
"id": "forest-resources",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Forest resources"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Forest resources include wood and non-wood forest products, the protection of soil and water, biodiversity conservation, social and cultural uses, and any combination of these."
}
]
},
{
"id": "forest-certification-schemes",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Forest certification schemes"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Forest certification schemes aim to ensure the sustainable use of forest products and ecosystem services."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Independently verified forest certification schemes include the <a href=\"https://fsc.org/\">Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)</a> and the <a href=\"https://www.pefc.org/\">Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC)</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Forest certification is voluntary and market-based, therefore there are significant areas of sustainably managed forest that are not certified."
}
]
},
{
"id": "land-degradation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Land degradation"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Land degradation is defined as the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from a combination of pressures, including land use and management practices."
}
]
},
{
"id": "tourism-adjusted",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Tourism adjusted"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "To adjust for tourism emissions from international flights are multiplied by the ratio of outbound-to-inbound travelers. A high outbound-to-inbound tourist ratio suggests that a country's residents travel abroad more often than it receives visitors, resulting in a relatively lower burden of emissions from international flights being allocated to the country whose residents don't travel internationally as frequently."
}
]
},
{
"id": "unclos",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was adopted in 1982. It lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world's oceans and seas establishing rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It embodies in one instrument traditional rules for the uses of the oceans and at the same time introduces new legal concepts and regimes and addresses new concerns. It enshrines the notion that all problems of ocean space are closely interrelated and need to be addressed as a whole."
}
]
},
{
"id": "economic-complexity",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Economic Complexity Index"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Economic Complexity Index (ECI) is a measure of the productive capabilities of a country, <a href=\"https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.0900943106\">proposed</a> by Ricardo Hausmann and Cesar Hidalgo. Productive capabilities are defined by them as all the inputs, technologies and ideas that, in combination, determine the frontiers of what an economy can produce."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The ECI takes data on exports, and reduces a country\u2019s economic system into two dimensions:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- The diversity of products in the export basket."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- The ubiquity of products in the export basket."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2018Diversity\u2019 is the number of products that a country can export competitively; and \u2018ubiquity\u2019 is the number of countries that are able to export a product competitively."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-and-why-econ-complexity\">How and why should we study \u2018economic complexity\u2019?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "ai-MMLU",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "MMLU benchmark"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Massive Multitask Language Understanding (MMLU) benchmark mimics a multiple-choice knowledge quiz designed to gauge how proficiently AI systems can comprehend various topics like history, science, or psychology. It has 57 different sections, each one looking at a particular subject."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The MMLU test has 15,908 questions in total, which are split up into smaller sets. There are at least 100 questions about each subject. The questions in the test come from many places, like practice tests for big exams or questions from university courses. The difficulty of the questions varies, some are as easy as elementary school level, while others are as hard as what professionals in a field might know."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The scores achieved by humans on this test are largely dependent on their level of expertise in the subject matter. Individuals who are not specialists in a given area typically achieve a correctness rate of around 34.5%. However, those with a deep understanding and proficiency in their field, such as doctors sitting for a medical examination, can attain a high score of up to 89.8% on the test."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ai-MATH",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "MATH benchmark"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The MATH benchmark tests the performance of AI systems on mathematical problems. It comprises 12,500 questions sourced from high-school math competitions, each accompanied by a comprehensive, step-by-step solution. These solutions help researchers in training AI systems to generate accurate answers and provide explanations."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In the MATH benchmark, AI systems are presented with a problem and their task is to produce a sequence, like a fraction (for example, 2/3), that represents the final answer. Each question has one unique correct response which means that the scoring can be based on whether the AI got the exact right answer."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A computer science PhD student who does not especially like mathematics scores approximately 40% on MATH, while a three-time IMO gold medalist can attain a score of 90%."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ai-APPS",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "APPS benchmark"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The APPS (Automated Programming Progress Standard) benchmark is a tool to test how well AI systems can write code. It has a total of 10,000 coding challenges that the AI needs to solve. To check if the AI's solutions are correct, there are 131,836 test scenarios. There are also 232,444 human-made solutions that serve as the \"correct answers\" to compare with the AI's output. The accuracy of an AI system in this test is determined by the percentage of test scenarios it gets right."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Interview level problems are equivalent to those posed in challenging technical interviews. They often deal with certain kinds of data arrangements, like trees or graphs, or require tweaks to common coding techniques. Out of the total 10,000 problems, half of them, or 5,000, are at this 'interview level'. Of these, 3,000 are used for testing purposes."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Competition level problems are coding challenges that are on par with the highest-tier high school and collegiate programming competitions, such as USACO, IOI, and ACM. Out of the total problems, 1,361 are classified as 'competition level', with 1,000 of these being part of the test set."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ai-llms",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Large language models"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Large language models, such as GPT-4, are AI systems designed to understand and generate human-like text. These models are \"trained\" on vast amounts of text data, allowing them to predict the next word in a sentence, which helps them generate coherent and contextually relevant responses or text passages."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ai-systems",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "AI systems"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "AI systems, or Artificial Intelligence systems, are computer-based systems that aim to mimic or replicate human intelligence and perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. These systems use various algorithms, data, and models to analyze, interpret, and generate meaningful responses or actions."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "AI systems encompass a broad range of technologies and applications, including machine learning, natural language processing, computer vision, robotics, and expert systems. They can process large amounts of data, learn from patterns and examples, make decisions, solve problems, and interact with humans in a way that simulates human intelligence."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These systems can be designed for specific tasks, such as language translation, image recognition, speech synthesis, or they can be more general-purpose, capable of performing a wide range of cognitive tasks. They can be found in various domains, including healthcare, finance, transportation, customer service, and many others."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ai-inflation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "adjusted for inflation"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Reporting a time series of AI investments in nominal prices (i.e., without adjusting for inflation) means it makes little sense to compare observations across time; it is therefore not very useful. To make comparisons across time possible, one has to take into account that prices change (e.g., there is inflation)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is not obvious how to adjust this time series for inflation, and we debated it at some length within our team."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It would be straightforward to adjust the time series for price changes if we knew the prices of the specific goods and services that these investments purchased. This would make it possible to calculate a volume measure of AI investments, and it would tell us how much these investments bought. But such a metric is not available. While a comprehensive price index is not available, we know that the cost for some crucial AI technology has fallen rapidly in price."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In the absence of a comprehensive price index that captures the price of AI-specific goods and services, one has to rely on one of the available metrics for the price of a bundle of goods and services. In the end we decided to use the US Consumer Price Index (CPI)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The US CPI does not provide us with a volume measure of AI goods and services, but it does capture the opportunity costs of these investments. The inflation adjustment of this time series of AI investments therefore lets us understand the size of these investments relative to whatever else these sums of money could have purchased."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ai-computation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Computation"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Training computation, often measured in total FLOP (floating-point operations), refers to the total number of computer operations used to train an AI system. One FLOP corresponds to a single arithmetic operation, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division, performed with floating-point numbers, and one petaFLOP equals one quadrillion (10^15) FLOP."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The AI systems shown here were built using machine learning and deep learning methods. These involve complex mathematical calculations that require significant computational resources. Training these systems generally involves feeding large amounts of data through various layers and nodes and adjusting internal system parameters over numerous iterations to optimize the system\u2019s performance."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The training computation used can vary depending on factors such as the size of the dataset, size and complexity of the system architecture, and the level of parallelism used during training, among other reasons."
}
]
},
{
"id": "injuries",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Injuries"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Injuries include all types of injury, both intentional and accidental, for example: road accidents, poisonings, falls, fires, drowning, natural disasters, self-harm and interpersonal violence."
}
]
},
{
"id": "non-communicable-diseases",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Non-communicable diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, tend to be of long duration and are the result of a combination of genetic, physiological, environmental and behavioural factors. The main types of NCD are <a href=\"#dod:cvd\">cardiovascular diseases</a>, <a href=\"#dod:cancer\">cancers</a>, <a href=\"#dod:chronic_respiratory_disease\">chronic respiratory diseases</a>, and <a href=\"#dod:diabetes\">diabetes</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "communicable-diseases",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Communicable diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Communicable, or infectious diseases, are caused by <a href=\"#dod:pathogen\">pathogens</a> such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi, and can spread between people, directly or indirectly."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Communicable diseases spread through different routes such as direct contact, contaminated food or water, breathing or airborne particles, sexual contact, and more."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They include <a href=\"#dod:hiv\">HIV/AIDS</a>, <a href=\"#dod:tuberculosis\">tuberculosis</a> (TB), <a href=\"#dod:malaria\">malaria</a>, viral hepatitis, sexually transmitted infections and <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical diseases</a> (NTDs), and are among the leading causes of death and disability in low-income countries and marginalized populations."
}
]
},
{
"id": "underlying-cause-of-death",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Underlying cause of death"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The \u2018underlying cause of death\u2019 is defined by the World Health Organization as: a) the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or b) the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "All deaths may not be registered with a cause of death, especially if there is a lack of medical records for the person deceased, a lack of doctors, nurses, or hospitals nearby, or if the country has a poorly functioning vital registration system."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 You can read more about how causes of death are determined in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-causes-of-death-registered-around-the-world\">How are causes of death registered around the world?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "crvs",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Civil Registration and Vital Statistics system"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A Civil Registration and Vital Statistics system (CRVS) is an administrative system in a country that manages information on births, marriages, deaths and divorces. It generates and stores \u2018vital records\u2019 and legal documents such as birth certificates and death certificates."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 You can read more about how deaths are registered around the world in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-causes-of-death-registered-around-the-world\">How are causes of death registered around the world?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "verbal-autopsy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Verbal autopsy"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Verbal autopsies are studies in which the relatives/caregivers of a deceased person are interviewed by trained professionals to determine their cause of death."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These studies are valuable in countries without doctors, nurses, robust hospital records, or where deaths often occur outside the healthcare system."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 You can read more about verbal autopsies and how deaths are determined around the world in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-are-causes-of-death-registered-around-the-world\">How are causes of death registered around the world?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "hepatitis-virus",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Hepatitis virus"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Hepatitis viruses are a group of viruses that cause inflammation of the liver. This results in symptoms like jaundice, fatigue, and liver dysfunction, and can range from a mild illness lasting a few weeks (acute hepatitis) to a severe, lifelong condition (chronic hepatitis) that can include <a href=\"#dod:cirrhosis\">cirrhosis</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "There are five main hepatitis viruses, which are called types A, B, C, D, and E. Each of these viruses can cause liver inflammation, but they vary in how they spread, their severity, and their geographical distribution. For example, Hepatitis A and E are primarily transmitted through contaminated food and water, while B, C, and D are mainly transmitted through blood and body fluids. Hepatitis B and C viruses are also known to increase the risks of liver cancer."
}
]
},
{
"id": "cirrhosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cirrhosis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cirrhosis describes the late stage of liver scarring caused by various liver diseases and conditions, such as <a href=\"#dod:hepatitis-virus\">hepatitis virus</a> and chronic alcohol abuse."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Since the liver has many important functions \u2013 including detoxifying harmful substances in the body, producing bile for digestion, synthesizing proteins, storing vitamins and minerals, and regulating blood clotting \u2013 cirrhosis can lead to complications that can be life-threatening."
}
]
},
{
"id": "acute-chronic",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Acute vs chronic diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In a medical context, \u2018acute\u2019 refers to conditions that arise suddenly or last a short amount of time, while \u2018chronic\u2019 refers to conditions that develop gradually over a long period of time and tend to persist."
}
]
},
{
"id": "acute-flaccid-paralysis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Acute flaccid paralysis (AFP)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Acute flaccid paralysis is a sudden onset of paralysis or weakness of the limbs."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It can be caused by viral infections like poliovirus and enteroviruses, immune system disorders such as Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome, and environmental toxins. It can affect anyone but is especially concerning in children."
}
]
},
{
"id": "who-mort-db-homicide",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "WHO Mortality Database"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The WHO Mortality Database draws on data from national civil registries which collect death certificates where the cause of death is registered. The WHO Mortality Database only publishes data for countries where at least 65% of deaths are registered with a cause."
}
]
},
{
"id": "dhs-survey",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) are large-scale national surveys that collect data on population, health, and nutrition."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The surveys involve interviewing women, men, and households in selected countries, using standardized questionnaires. The data collected provides insights into topics like fertility, family planning, maternal and child health, and infectious diseases."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Policymakers, researchers, and global health organizations use this information to make informed decisions and monitor health trends."
}
]
},
{
"id": "mics-survey",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) are international household surveys initiated by UNICEF to gather information on the well-being of children and women."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Conducted in various countries, these surveys utilize standardized questionnaires to collect data on health, education, and other vital indicators."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The data helps governments and organizations to evaluate progress towards global targets, such as the United Nations\u2019 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)."
}
]
},
{
"id": "unodc-homicide",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "UN Office on Drugs and Crime"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The UN Office on Drugs and Crime collates homicide data from two main resources: 1) primarily data from national law enforcement and criminal justice authorities, 2) civil registry data from WHO-MD and national authorities"
}
]
},
{
"id": "history-of-homicide-database",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "History of Homicide Database"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The History of Homicide Database combines data from national civil registries with historial studies of reports by law enforcement and criminal justice authorities."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ihme-homicide",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "IHME Global Burden of Disease"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The IHME Global Burden of Disease uses statistical models to produce estimates of homicides.The model inputs include civil registry data from the WHO Mortality Database, law enforcement and criminal justice data from the UN Office of Drugs and Crime, and relevant covariates such as the young male population and alcohol consumption."
}
]
},
{
"id": "who-ghe-homicide",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "WHO Global Health Estimates"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The WHO Global Health Estimates data on homicides draws on three main sources: 1) civil registry data from the WHO Mortality Database; 2) law enforcement and criminal justice data from the UN Office of Drugs and Crime; and 3) statistically modelled estimates from the IHME Global Burden of Disease."
}
]
},
{
"id": "wvs-trust-groups",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The question asked was"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "I\u2019d like to ask you how much you trust people from various groups. Could you tell me for each whether you trust people from this group completely, somewhat, not very much or not at all?"
}
]
},
{
"id": "wvs-trust-orgs",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The question asked was"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "I am going to name a number of organizations. For each one, could you tell me how much confidence you have in them: is it a great deal of confidence, quite a lot of confidence, not very much confidence or none at all?"
}
]
},
{
"id": "ppe",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) refers to specialized gear worn to minimize the risk of exposure to hazardous materials or infectious <a href=\"#dod:pathogen\">pathogens</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It includes items like masks, gloves, goggles, gowns, and respirators, which create a barrier between the wearer and potentially harmful substances, thereby reducing risk in various settings such as healthcare, construction, and industrial environments."
}
]
},
{
"id": "highly-pathogenic-avian-influenza",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Highly-pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Highly-pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a severe form of bird flu that can quickly spread and cause deadly disease in poultry."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Some cases have also been recorded in humans, particularly from H5N1 and H7N9 flu strains, and have had a high <a href=\"#dod:case-fatality-rate\">case fatality rate</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "case-fatality-rate",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Case fatality rate"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The case fatality rate is a measure of the severity of a disease. It is the share of people who die from a disease, out of those diagnosed."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The case fatality rate can be an overestimate of the true severity of a disease when many mild or asymptomatic cases go undetected or unreported. On the other hand, it can be an underestimate when deaths are unreported more than cases, or when people die from long-term complications of the disease which may not have been considered."
}
]
},
{
"id": "terrorism",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Terrorist attack"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Global Terrorism Database defines a terrorist attack as the threat or use of violence to achieve a political, economic, religious or social goal through intimidation or coercion by an actor that is not the state. For an event to be considered terrorism:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- The perpetrators must be acting intentionally"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- The perpetrators must threaten or use violence against people or property"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- The perpetrators must not be agents of a state"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Furthermore, at least two of the following three criteria must be met:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- The actions of the perpetrators are in pursuit of a political, economic, religious, or social goal"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- The actions are aimed at intimidating or coercing more than the immediate victims"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- The actions target civilians"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/the-global-terrorism-database-how-do-researchers-measure-terrorism\">The Global Terrorism Database: how do researchers measure terrorism?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "pre-primary-education",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pre-primary education"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pre-primary education (International Standard Classification of Education Level 02) focuses on peer and educator interactions to enhance children's language and social skills, while also beginning to develop logical reasoning and verbalized thought processes."
}
]
},
{
"id": "primary-education",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Primary education"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Primary education (International Standard Classification of Education Level 1) aims to impart fundamental literacy and numeracy skills while providing a solid foundation in key knowledge areas and personal and social development, serving as preparation for lower-secondary education with a focus on basic-level learning and minimal specialization."
}
]
},
{
"id": "secondary-education",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Secondary education"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Secondary education (International Standard Classification of Education Level 2 and 3) completes the provision of basic education that began at the primary level, and aims at laying the foundations for lifelong learning and human development, by offering more subject- or skill-oriented instruction using more specialized teachers."
}
]
},
{
"id": "lower-secondary-education",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Lower-secondary education"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Lower-secondary education (International Standard Classification of Education Level 2) lays the foundation for lifelong learning and broader educational opportunities through subject-specific theoretical instruction."
}
]
},
{
"id": "upper-secondary-education",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Upper-secondary education"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Upper-secondary education (International Standard Classification of Education Level 3) prepares students for tertiary education and employment by offering specialized, in-depth instruction that is more varied and differentiated than lower secondary education (International Standard Classification of Education Level 2)."
}
]
},
{
"id": "tertiary-education",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Tertiary education"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Tertiary education (International Standard Classification of Education Level 5 to 8) expands upon secondary education by offering specialized learning activities in various fields. It targets advanced levels of complexity and specialization, encompassing both academic and advanced vocational or professional education."
}
]
},
{
"id": "adjusted-gpi",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Adjusted gender parity index"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Adjusted gender parity index (GPI) is calculated by dividing the female indicator value by the male value. To ensure symmetry around 1, when the ratio is greater than 1, the adjusted GPI is calculated as the ratio of male to female values and the ratio is subtracted from 2."
}
]
},
{
"id": "lays",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learning-adjusted years"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learning-adjusted years (LAYS) is computed by adjusting the expected years of school based on the quality of learning, as measured by the harmonized test scores from various international student achievement testing programs. The adjustment involves multiplying the expected years of school by the ratio of the most recent harmonized test score to 625. Here, 625 signifies advanced attainment on the TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) test, with 300 representing minimal attainment. These scores are measured in TIMSS-equivalent units."
}
]
},
{
"id": "harmonized-scores",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Harmonized test scores"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Harmonized test scores consolidate data from several international student achievement testing programs, enabling a standardized comparison of educational attainment across different educational systems and cultures. These scores are measured in TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) - equivalent units, with 300 denoting minimal attainment and 625 representing advanced attainment."
}
]
},
{
"id": "armed-conflict-ucdp",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Armed conflict (UCDP and PRIO)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A disagreement between organized groups, or between one organized group and civilians, that causes at least 25 deaths during a year. This includes combatant and civilian deaths due to fighting, but excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the conflict."
}
]
},
{
"id": "interstate-ucdp",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Interstate conflict (UCDP and PRIO)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between states that causes at least 25 deaths during a year. This includes combatant and civilian deaths due to fighting, but excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the conflict."
}
]
},
{
"id": "intrastate-ucdp",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Intrastate conflict (UCDP and PRIO)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between a state and a non-state armed group inside the state\u2019s territory that causes at least 25 deaths during a year. This includes combatant and civilian deaths due to fighting, but excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the conflict."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "If a foreign state is involved, it is called \u201cinternationalized\u201d, and \u201cnon-internationalized\u201d otherwise."
}
]
},
{
"id": "extrasystemic-ucdp",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Extrasystemic conflict (UCDP and PRIO)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between a state and a non-state armed group outside the state\u2019s territory that causes at least 25 deaths during a year. This includes combatant and civilian deaths due to fighting, but excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the conflict."
}
]
},
{
"id": "nonstate-ucdp",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Non-state conflict (UCDP)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between non-state armed groups, such as rebel groups, criminal organizations, or ethnic groups, that causes at least 25 deaths during a year. This includes combatant and civilian deaths due to fighting, but excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the conflict."
}
]
},
{
"id": "onesided-ucdp",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "One-sided violence (UCDP)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The use of armed force by a state or non-state armed group against civilians that causes at least 25 civilian deaths during a year. It excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the violence."
}
]
},
{
"id": "primary-participant-ucdp",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Primary participants (UCDP)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Those participants that have the main disagreement of the conflict."
}
]
},
{
"id": "conventional-war-mars",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Conventional war (Project Mars)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between combatants with differentiated militaries and clear frontlines that causes at least 500 deaths over its duration. This includes combatant deaths due to fighting, but excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the conflict."
}
]
},
{
"id": "civil-war-mars",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Civil war (Project Mars)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between combatants that were previously part of the same state, but now at least one seeks control or secession. It is fought with differentiated militaries and clear frontlines and causes at least 500 deaths over its duration. This includes combatant deaths due to fighting, but excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the conflict."
}
]
},
{
"id": "interstate-war-mars",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Interstate war (Project Mars)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between states with differentiated militaries and clear frontlines that causes at least 500 deaths over its duration. This includes combatant deaths due to fighting, but excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the conflict."
}
]
},
{
"id": "major-participant-mars",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Major participant (Project Mars)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A participant that suffers at least 1% of deaths in the conflict overall, or deploys at least 5% of its total combatants."
}
]
},
{
"id": "force-mic",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Threats, displays, and uses of force (Militarized Interstate Confrontations)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A threat of force can be unspecified, or entail threatening to declare war or to occupy territory; a display of force can entail shows of force or border violations; a use of force can entail attacks, clashes, or battles."
}
]
},
{
"id": "interstate-war-mic",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Interstate war (Militarized Interstate Confrontations)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between states that causes at least 1,000 deaths during a year. This includes combatant deaths due to fighting, but excludes deaths due to disease and starvation resulting from the conflict."
}
]
},
{
"id": "force-cow",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Threats, displays, and uses of force (Correlates of War)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A threat of force can be unspecified, or entail threatening to declare war or to occupy territory; a display of force can entail shows of force or border violations; a use of force can entail attacks, clashes, or battles."
}
]
},
{
"id": "war-cow",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "War (Correlates of War)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between armed groups that causes at least 1,000 deaths during a year. This includes combatant deaths due to fighting, disease, and starvation."
}
]
},
{
"id": "interstate-war-cow",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Interstate war (Correlates of War)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between states that causes at least 1,000 deaths during a year. This includes combatant deaths due to fighting, disease, and starvation."
}
]
},
{
"id": "intrastate-war-cow",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Intrastate war (Correlates of War)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between a state and a non-state armed group, or between non-state armed groups, that causes at least 1,000 deaths during a year. This includes combatant deaths due to fighting, disease, and starvation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "If a foreign state is involved, it is called \u201cinternationalized\u201d, and \u201cnon-internationalized\u201d otherwise."
}
]
},
{
"id": "extrastate-war-cow",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Extrastate war (Correlates of War)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between a state and a non-state region it seeks to control, or between a state and a colony that seeks policy change or independence, that causes at least 1,000 deaths during a year. This includes combatant deaths due to fighting, disease, and starvation."
}
]
},
{
"id": "nonstate-war-cow",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Non-state war (Correlates of War)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between non-state armed groups within a region without a state or across state borders, that causes at least 1,000 deaths during a year. This includes combatant deaths due to fighting, disease, and starvation."
}
]
},
{
"id": "violent-political-conflict-catalog",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Violent political conflict (Conflict Catalog)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between states, a state and a non-state armed group, between non-state armed groups, or between an armed group and civilians, that causes at least 32 deaths during a year. This includes combatant and civilian deaths due to fighting, disease, and starvation."
}
]
},
{
"id": "war",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "War"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An especially deadly conflict, <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/conflict-data-how-do-researchers-measure-armed-conflicts-and-their-deaths\">commonly defined</a> to have at least 500 or 1,000 annual or total deaths."
}
]
},
{
"id": "interstate-conflict",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Interstate conflict"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between states."
}
]
},
{
"id": "intrastate-conflict",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Intrastate conflict"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between a state and a non-state armed group within the state\u2019s territory. If a foreign state is involved, it is sometimes called \u201cinternationalized\u201d, and \u201cnon-internationalized\u201d otherwise."
}
]
},
{
"id": "extrastate-conflict",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Extrastate conflict"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between a state and a non-state armed group outside the state\u2019s territory."
}
]
},
{
"id": "statebased-conflict",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "State-based conflict"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict either between states (interstate), between a state and a non-state armed group inside its territory (intrastate), or between a state and a non-state armed group outside its territory (extrastate)."
}
]
},
{
"id": "nonstate-conflict",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Non-state conflict"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A conflict between non-state armed groups."
}
]
},
{
"id": "onesided-violence",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "One-sided violence"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The use of armed force by a state or non-state armed group against civilians."
}
]
},
{
"id": "peace-diehl",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Relationships between two countries"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Severe rivalry: important unresolved issues, frequent and severe violence, hostile diplomacy, and limited communication."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Lesser rivalry: important unresolved issues, infrequent and limited violence, hostile diplomacy, and limited communication."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Negative peace: some important issues resolved, rarely use violence, maintain plans for war, predominantly use diplomacy, and common communication between governments."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Warm peace: main issues resolved, violence unthinkable, firm diplomatic and societal relations, and coordinate some policies."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Security community: resolved main issues, violence unthinkable, joint war plans, coordinate diplomacy, harmonize policies, and share identities and values."
}
]
},
{
"id": "severe-rivalry",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Severe rivalry"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Two countries have important unresolved issues, and handle them with frequent and severe violence. Their diplomacy is hostile, and their communication is limited."
}
]
},
{
"id": "lesser-rivalry",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Lesser rivalry"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Two countries have important unresolved issues, and handle them with infrequent and limited violence. Their diplomacy is hostile, and their communication is limited."
}
]
},
{
"id": "negative-peace",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Negative peace"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Two countries have resolved some of their important issues, and rarely handle the remaining ones with violence, but they maintain plans for war. They predominantly use diplomacy, and communication between their governments is common."
}
]
},
{
"id": "warm-peace",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Warm peace"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Two countries have resolved their main issues and violence between them is unthinkable. They have firm diplomatic and societal relations, and coordinate some of their policies."
}
]
},
{
"id": "security-community",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Security community"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Two countries have resolved their main issues, violence between them is unthinkable, and the war plans they maintain they make together. They coordinate their diplomacy, harmonize their policies, and share identities and values."
}
]
},
{
"id": "oecd-regions",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "OECD regions"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The definitions of regions, as stipulated by the OECD, are:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Other OECD America: Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- OECD EU countries : Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- OECD Non-EU countries: Iceland, Israel, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- OECD Oceania: Australia, New Zealand"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- OECD Asia: Japan, Korea"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Latin America: Non-OECD Latin American and Caribbean countries"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Other EU: Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Malta, Romania"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Other Eurasia: Non-OECD European and Caspian countries, including Russian Federation"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Middle East & North Africa: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Islamic Rep. of Iran, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Syrian Arab Rep., Western Sahara, Yemen"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Other Africa: Sub-Saharan Africa"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- China: People\u2019s Republic of China, Hong Kong (China)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Other non-OECD Asia: Other non-OECD Asian and Pacific countries"
}
]
},
{
"id": "period-life-expectancy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Period life expectancy"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Period life expectancy is a metric that summarizes death rates across all age groups in one particular year."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "For a given year, it represents the average lifespan for a hypothetical group of people, if they experienced the same age-specific death rates throughout their whole lives as the age-specific death rates seen in that particular year."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy-how-is-it-calculated-and-how-should-it-be-interpreted\">\u201cLife expectancy\u201d \u2013\u00a0What does this actually mean?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "cohort-life-expectancy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cohort life expectancy"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cohort life expectancy is the average lifespan of a group of people, usually a birth cohort \u2013 people born in the same year."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is calculated by tracking individuals from that cohort throughout their lives until death, and calculating their average lifespan."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy-how-is-it-calculated-and-how-should-it-be-interpreted\">\u201cLife expectancy\u201d \u2013\u00a0What does this actually mean?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "period-measure",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Period measure"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Period measures provide a snapshot of data across various age groups at a specific point in time. They reflect the impact of immediate events and conditions."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/period-versus-cohort-measures-whats-the-difference\">Period versus cohort measures: what\u2019s the difference?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "cohort-measure",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cohort measure"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cohort measures track specific groups \u2013\u00a0like birth cohorts \u2013 over time, capturing their experiences and outcomes."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "They provide insights into generational effects and historical experiences, although they require long-term data collection before they can be calculated."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/period-versus-cohort-measures-whats-the-difference\">Period versus cohort measures: what\u2019s the difference?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "infant",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Infant"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Infancy is defined as being under the age of one year old."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-do-statistical-organizations-define-age-periods-in-children\">How do statistical organizations define age periods for children?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "preterm-birth-complications",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Preterm birth complications"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Preterm birth complications are conditions including impaired respiration, difficulty in feeding, poor body temperature regulation, and higher risk of infection, which preterm infants are more vulnerable to."
}
]
},
{
"id": "newborn",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Newborn"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A newborn is defined as a baby born alive, and usually refers to <a href=\"#dod:neonatal\">neonates</a> \u2013\u00a0under 28 days old."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-do-statistical-organizations-define-age-periods-in-children\">How do statistical organizations define age periods for children?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "neonatal",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Neonatal"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Neonatal is defined as the period of age under 28 days old."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Within this age period, there are two categories: early neonatal (under 7 days) and late neonatal (7\u201327 days)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-do-statistical-organizations-define-age-periods-in-children\">How do statistical organizations define age periods for children?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "stillbirth",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Stillbirth"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A stillbirth is defined as a baby born with no signs of life after a specific time of gestation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "However, the precise definition varies between organizations."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "For example, the International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision (ICD-11) defines stillbirths as babies born with no signs of life at 22 or more completed weeks of gestation. They also have two sub-categories of stillbirths: \u2018early gestation stillbirth\u2019 (at 22 to 27 completed weeks of gestation) and \u2018late gestation stillbirth\u2019 (at 28 or more completed weeks of gestation)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In contrast, the WHO and UN IGME define stillbirths as those at 28 or more completed weeks of gestation, which corresponds to what the ICD-11 calls late gestation stillbirths."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/how-do-statistical-organizations-define-age-periods-in-children\">How do statistical organizations define age periods for children?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "cholesterol",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cholesterol"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in all cells of the body. It\u2019s crucial for creating cell membranes, certain hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help with digestion. The body naturally produces all the cholesterol it needs, with additional intake from food."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cholesterol travels through the bloodstream while attached to proteins called lipoproteins. These come in two types:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "1. <b>High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL)</b>, often known as \u201cgood cholesterol\u201d, transports cholesterol from various parts of the body back to the liver, which removes it from the body. This prevents cholesterol from accumulating in blood vessels, thereby reducing the risk of heart disease."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "2.<b> Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL)</b> and <b>Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein (VLDL)</b>, collectively known as non-HDL or \u201cbad cholesterol\u201d, transport cholesterol to the arteries. High levels can build up in the walls of blood vessels, which is called <a href=\"#dod:atherosclerosis\">atherosclerosis</a>, and narrows the space for blood to travel through and limits blood flow to organs. This increases the risk of heart disease and other <a href=\"#dod:cvd\">cardiovascular diseases</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "defined-daily-doses",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Defined Daily Doses"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Defined Daily Doses (DDDs) is a metric to describe the usage of a medication in a population."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It\u2019s calculated by taking the total amount of the medication used and dividing it by the total population. This helps to standardize and compare medication use in different places and times, which can be useful for healthcare research and policy decisions."
}
]
},
{
"id": "statins",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Statins"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Statins are medicines that help lower high cholesterol in the blood. They are often given to people with heart diseases, high cholesterol or those at risk of heart problems. Statins reduce levels of non-HDL cholesterol, and are commonly prescribed alongside lifestyle changes, such as a healthy diet and exercise."
}
]
},
{
"id": "mri-imaging",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique that utilizes powerful magnets and radio waves to produce detailed images of internal body structures. MRI is known for its safety and is used for diagnosing various medical conditions, including those affecting the brain, spine, joints, liver, kidneys, breasts, heart, and blood vessels."
}
]
},
{
"id": "gamma-camera-imaging",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Gamma Camera"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A gamma camera is a specialized medical device used in nuclear medicine. It is used to create images of internal processes in the body, by detecting small amounts of radioactivity that is naturally present in the body."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Gamma cameras are used in diagnosing medical conditions, detecting tumours, evaluating heart function and bone structure."
}
]
},
{
"id": "nuclear-medicine-imaging",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Nuclear Medicine"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Nuclear medicine is a medical imaging approach that produces images of internal body functions."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It has a wide range of applications in diagnosing medical conditions, detecting tumours, evaluating heart function and bone structure."
}
]
},
{
"id": "pet-imaging",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Positron Emission Tomography (PET)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a medical imaging technique captures images of the body, by using controlled amounts of radioactive materials."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is commonly used in diagnosing medical conditions, especially for detecting tumours, and evaluating the function of our organs."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ct-imaging",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Computed Tomography (CT)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Computed Tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method that produces detailed X-ray images from multiple angles."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It visualizes internal structures, such as bones, organs, and blood vessels. CT scans are widely used for diagnosing various health conditions, from fractures to internal diseases."
}
]
},
{
"id": "implantable-cardioverter-defibrillators",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators are medical devices that are surgically implanted in the chest and are designed to monitor heart rhythms and deliver electric shocks to restore normal heartbeats in the event of life-threatening arrhythmias or sudden cardiac arrest."
}
]
},
{
"id": "pacemaker",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pacemaker"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A pacemaker is a medical device implanted into the chest or abdomen to regulate and control heart rhythms by sending electrical impulses."
}
]
},
{
"id": "artery-vein",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Arteries and veins"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b>Arteries</b> are a type of blood vessel that generally carries oxygen-filled blood away from our heart and towards organs. A simple way to remember this is that A is for \u201cartery\u201d and \u201caway from the heart\u201d."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b>Veins</b> generally do the opposite: they carry oxygen-depleted blood (which carries carbon dioxide instead) from our organs to our heart."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An exception is in the lung\u2019s blood circulation, where pulmonary arteries carry oxygen-depleted blood to the lungs, and pulmonary veins carry oxygen-rich blood back to the heart."
}
]
},
{
"id": "peripheral-artery-disease",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Peripheral artery disease"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Peripheral artery disease is a condition that affects blood vessels supplying the arms and legs."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It commonly arises due to atherosclerosis \u2013 the build-up of fat, cholesterol and other substances in the walls of blood vessels. If left untreated, peripheral artery disease can cause damage to parts of the arms and legs, and in severe cases, can lead to amputation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "atherosclerosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Atherosclerosis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Atherosclerosis is when there is a build-up of fats, cholesterol & other substances in the walls of blood vessels, usually in arteries. This build-up narrows the space for blood to travel through, and limits blood flow to organs."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Sometimes, the build up can be unstable and it can break off from the blood vessel, which can be dangerous. It can travel through the bloodstream and cause a blood clot to form, which can get stuck in smaller blood vessels, and cut off blood flow to parts of the body."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "aneurysm",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Aneurysm"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An aneurysm is when the wall of a blood vessel weakens, which makes it bulge out, and stretch its walls thinner."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Aneurysms can develop due to high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, injuries, and other risk factors."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In serious cases, an aneurysm can lead to the tearing or breaking of a blood vessel, which leads to bleeding in the surrounding area and reduces blood flow to other organs, which can cause organ damage."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "ischemic-heart-disease",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ischaemic heart disease"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ischaemic heart disease, which is also known as coronary artery disease, develops when there is a blockage of blood flow to the heart, often due to <a href=\"#dod:atherosclerosis\">atherosclerosis</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "hypertensive-heart-disease",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Hypertensive heart diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Hypertensive heart diseases are diseases caused by long-term <a href=\"#dod:hypertension\">high blood pressure</a> (\u2018hypertension\u2019), which puts pressure on the heart."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "When this happens, the heart\u2019s structure changes \u2013 for example, the heart\u2019s muscles thicken \u2013 and its ability to pump blood worsens."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "endocarditis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Endocarditis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Endocarditis is an inflammation of the heart's inner lining. It typically arises from infections \u2013 usually by Streptococcus and Staphylococcus bacteria \u2013 that can enter the bloodstream and adhere to the heart."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These infections can arise naturally, but can also be associated with hospital or medical environments. Staphylococcus bacteria are often found on the skin and in wounds, and they can be transmitted with implants and long-term intravenous insertions, especially without adequate sterilization practices."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "myocarditis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Myocarditis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Myocarditis is a medical condition caused by inflammation of the middle muscles of the heart. It can result from infections, toxins, drugs, autoimmune diseases, and other immune conditions."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "cardiomyopathy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cardiomyopathy"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cardiomyopathies are a range of abnormalities of the heart muscle \u2013 for example, conditions that cause them to stretch, thicken or become rigid."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "rheumatic-heart-disease",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rheumatic heart diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rheumatic heart diseases can develop as a consequence of rheumatic fever. This is caused by untreated Strep throat and scarlet fever infections, from group A <i>Streptococcus</i> bacteria."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "congenital-heart-disease",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Congenital heart diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Congenital heart diseases develop from heart abnormalities that are present at birth, when the heart structure doesn\u2019t form properly during fetal development. They can range from simple defects with no symptoms to complex problems with severe, life-threatening symptoms."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "pulmonary-heart-disease",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pulmonary heart diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pulmonary heart diseases are medical conditions that affect the heart\u2019s ability to pump blood to the lungs. They can develop from diseases of the lung\u2019s arteries, or from other heart or lung conditions."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "cerebrovascular-diseases",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cerebrovascular diseases"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cerebrovascular diseases are the broad category of diseases that affect the brain's blood vessels. This includes <a href=\"#dod:aneurysm\">aneurysms</a> and <a href=\"#dod:stroke\">strokes</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "ischemic-stroke",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ischaemic stroke"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Ischemic stroke is when blood supply to the brain, spinal cord or retina is reduced or blocked by a clot. This includes clots that developed in the brain\u2019s arteries, or clots that traveled to the brain from other parts of the body."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A stroke can be a serious life-threatening medical condition, because it can affect the brain\u2019s critical functions \u2013 including involuntary processes, like the control of our breathing and heart rate \u2013 and many other functions of the brain, including control of movement, speech and language, cognitive abilities, perception and hormone balance."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In survivors, a stroke can lead to long-term complications, which can be mitigated with treatment and rehabilitation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "hemorrhagic-stroke",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Hemorrhagic stroke"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Hemorrhagic stroke is when blood supply to the brain is reduced by bleeding, when a blood vessel tears or breaks. The leaked blood puts pressure on brain cells and damages them."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A stroke can be a serious life-threatening medical condition, because it can affect the brain\u2019s critical functions \u2013 including involuntary processes, like the control of our breathing and heart rate \u2013 and many other functions of the brain, including control of movement, speech and language, cognitive abilities, perception and hormone balance."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In survivors, a stroke can lead to long-term complications, which can be partly managed with treatment and rehabilitation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "heart-attack",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Heart attacks"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Heart attacks, which are formally called \u201cmyocardial infarctions\u201d in medicine, are when heart muscle cells die from a lack of blood flow, inflammation, or injury to the heart, and can lead to heart failure and death."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "deep-vein-thrombosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Deep vein thrombosis (DVT)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Deep vein thrombosis is a medical condition that develops from blood clots in a deep vein, usually in the legs."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This can cause pain and swelling, but it can also be a serious risk if the blood clot breaks off and travels to other parts of the body \u2013 especially if it travels to the lungs and blocks off its blood supply."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc3 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/cardiovascular-diseases-types-and-death-tolls\">What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases, and how many deaths do they cause?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "catheterization-labs",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Catheterization labs"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Catheterization labs (also known as \u201ccath labs\u201d) are specialized medical labs that are equipped with advanced imaging technology, which can be used to diagnose and treat various cardiovascular conditions."
}
]
},
{
"id": "leishmaniasis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Leishmaniasis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Leishmaniasis is a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease (NTD)</a> caused by <i>Leishmania </i>parasites, and spread by sandflies. Over 90 sandfly species are known to transmit <i>Leishmania</i> parasites."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "There are three main forms of the disease:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b>Cutaneous leishmaniasis:</b> this most common form causes skin ulcers at the bite site, usually on exposed parts of the body like the face, arms, and legs."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b>Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis:</b> this form causes ulcers of the nose, mouth, and throat areas."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b>Visceral leishmaniasis (also known as Kala-azar):</b> this is the most severe form, and affects the liver, spleen, and bone marrow, causing symptoms such as fever, weight loss, anemia, and swelling of these organs."
}
]
},
{
"id": "leprosy",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Leprosy"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Leprosy (also known as Hansen\u2019s disease) is a long-term infectious disease that affects the skin, nerves, respiratory system, eyes, and can lead to skin sores, numbness and deformities."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease (NTD)</a> and is caused by the bacteria <i>Mycobacterium leprae</i>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It develops gradually, and is known for its ability to cause significant nerve damage and disability if left untreated."
}
]
},
{
"id": "lymphatic-filariasis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Lymphatic filariasis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Lymphatic filariasis (\u201celephantiasis\u201d) is an infectious disease that causes extreme swelling of the arms, legs, or other body parts."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is spread by mosquito bites that transfer tiny parasitic worms into the body. These worms live in the <a href=\"#dod:lymphatic-system\">lymph system</a>, which is a network of vessels and nodes that help fight infections."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Over time, the worms disrupt the normal flow of the lymph fluid, causing it to build up and make the affected limbs or body areas incredibly swollen and deformed."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "If untreated, lymphatic filariasis can lead to permanent disability and disfigurement."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Lymphatic filariasis is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "onchocerciasis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "River blindness (\u201conchocerciasis\u201d)"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "River blindness, which has the scientific name onchocerciasis, is a major infectious cause of blindness."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is caused by a parasitic worm (<i>Onchocerca volvulus</i>) that spreads to humans through repeated bites of infected black flies, which breed in rivers."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "People infected can experience intense itching, rashes, skin discoloration, visual impairment and eye disease, which can eventually lead to permanent blindness."
}
]
},
{
"id": "african-trypanosomiasis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Sleeping sickness"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "African trypanosomiasis, or \u201csleeping sickness\u201d, is a severe infectious disease that causes disruptions in sleep, confusion, sensory problems and can lead to death if untreated."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is caused by tiny parasites called trypanosomes that are transmitted by tsetse flies in sub-Saharan Africa."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In the early stage, the disease causes fever, headaches, joint pains and itching. As the parasites cross into the brain, it leads to disruption of sleep cycles, confusion and other neurological issues."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Without treatment, the diseases consequences grow gradually and can ultimately result in coma and death."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The disease can be acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term), and both are fatal. These are caused by different parasites."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b><i>T.</i></b><b> </b><b><i>b.</i></b><b> </b><b><i>rhodesiense</i></b>,<i> </i>which is found in eastern and southern Africa, causes the short-term (acute) form of the disease."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b><i>T.</i></b><b> </b><b><i>b.</i></b><b> </b><b><i>gambiense</i></b><i>, </i>which<i> </i>is found mostly in west and central Africa, causes the long-term (chronic) form of the disease."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Sleeping sickness is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "trachoma",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Trachoma"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Trachoma is an eye infection that can potentially lead to blindness if not treated. It is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is spread through contact with discharge from an infected person's eyes or via flies."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In the early stages, called \u201cfollicular trachoma\u201d, the disease causes the eyelids to become inflamed and scarred."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "As the scarring builds up over time from repeated infections, the eyelids turn inwards. This makes the eyelashes rub against and scratch the eyeball, damaging the clear front part of the eye called the cornea. This advanced stage is called \u201ctrachomatous trichiasis\u201d."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The scratching and scarring to the cornea can eventually lead to irreversible blindness."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Learn more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/trachoma-how-a-common-cause-of-blindness-can-be-prevented-worldwide\">Trachoma: how a common cause of blindness can be prevented worldwide</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "trachoma-elimination",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Elimination of trachoma as a public health problem"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The elimination of <a href=\"#dod:trachoma\">trachoma</a> as a public health problem is defined as:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <5% of children aged 1\u20139 years in each formerly endemic district have early-stage trachoma"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 <0.2% of people aged over 15 years in each formerly-endemic district have advanced trachoma that is \u201cunknown to the health system\u201d"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u2022 There is written evidence that the health system is able to identify and manage incident cases of advanced trachoma, with evidence of sufficient finances to implement those strategies"
},
{
"type": "Note",
"value": "Countries listed as having \u201csuspected elimination\u201d have not submitted evidence for certification. Countries listed as having a \u201csuspected public health problem\u201d have not had sufficient testing to determine the prevalence of the disease."
}
]
},
{
"id": "snakebite-envenoming",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Snakebite envenoming"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Snakebite envenoming is when venom from a snake enters the body. It can be injected by snakes through a bite, or sprayed into the eyes by some snake species that can spit venom."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Different snake venoms cause different effects, but common symptoms include severe pain, swelling, bruising, nausea, difficulty breathing, and bleeding conditions."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Without rapid treatment, the venom can damage tissues, cause paralysis of the nervous system and respiratory failure, and potentially lead to fatal complications."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Snakebite envenoming is classified as a <a href=\"#dod:neglected-tropical-diseases\">neglected tropical disease</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Snakebite envenoming disproportionately affects rural agricultural workers, fishermen, hunters, and herders, who live or work in areas where snakes tend to live."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Deaths from snakebite envenoming tend to be more common in places where hospitals are sparse or lack antivenom, which is an immediate treatment for venomous bites."
}
]
},
{
"id": "tuberculosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Tuberculosis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that most often affects the lungs and is caused by a type of bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis). It spreads through the air when infected people cough, sneeze or spit."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Despite being a preventable and curable disease it is one of the leading causes of deaths from infectious diseases. It is the leading cause of death of people with <a href=\"#dod:hiv\">HIV</a> and also a major contributor to <a href=\"#dod:drug-resistant-tuberculosis\">antimicrobial resistance</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd6 Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/tuberculosis\">Tuberculosis</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "drug-resistant-tuberculosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drug resistant tuberculosis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drug resistant <a href=\"#dod:tuberculosis\">tuberculosis</a> is a form of tuberculosis that does not get better with the standard antibiotic treatment for the disease."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The standard treatment for tuberculosis (also known as the <a href=\"#dod:first-line-treatment\">first-line treatment</a>) is typically a combination of the antibiotics: rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide and ethambutol."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "If tuberculosis has developed resistance against these antibiotics, it is more challenging to treat \u2013 it requires longer treatment with other drugs, which can be less effective, more toxic, or more expensive."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "There are two classifications of drug resistant tuberculosis: multidrug resistant tuberculosis and extensively drug resistant tuberculosis."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In <b>multidrug resistant tuberculosis</b>, patients do not respond to treatment from the two main first-line drugs (<a href=\"#dod:rifampicin\">rifampicin</a> and isoniazid) used to treat tuberculosis."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In <b>extensively drug resistant tuberculosis</b>, patients meet the criteria for multidrug resistant tuberculosis, and also do not respond to treatment from any fluoroquinolone (the <a href=\"#dod:first-line-treatment\">second-line treatment</a> for tuberculosis), and at least one other second-line drug."
}
]
},
{
"id": "fast-track-unaids-hiv",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Fast-Track approach to HIV/AIDS"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Fast-Track approach is a roadmap developed by UNAIDS to end the <a href=\"#dod:hiv_aids\">AIDS</a> epidemic as a public health concern by 2030."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It is based on scaling up and maintaining implementation of <a href=\"#dod:hiv\">HIV</a> prevention, treatment, care and support for patients. It aims to reduce new HIV infections and AIDS-related deaths by 90% from 2010 to 2030, by using biomedical, behavioral and enabling interventions and rapidly scaling up antiretroviral treatment known as 90-90-90."
}
]
},
{
"id": "pandemic",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pandemic"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pandemics generally refer to diseases with a vast geographic range \u2013 such as spreading across a continent or multiple continents. In addition, they tend to describe outbreaks that are rapidly growing or expanding in range; highly infectious; affecting a large number of people; and caused by novel pathogens against which there is little or no pre-existing immunity."
}
]
},
{
"id": "latent-tuberculosis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Latent tuberculosis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Latent <a href=\"#dod:tuberculosis\">tuberculosis</a> is a condition where an individual is infected with tuberculosis, but the bacteria are inactive and they have no symptoms."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These individuals are not contagious and may not know they have the infection until it becomes active, potentially months or years later."
}
]
},
{
"id": "relapsed",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Relapsed"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Relapse is when a disease, or its symptoms, return after a period of recovery. This can require re-treatment."
}
]
},
{
"id": "bcg-vaccine",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "BCG vaccine"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The BCG vaccine, short for Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin vaccine, is a vaccine used against childhood <a href=\"#dod:tuberculosis\">tuberculosis</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "first-line-treatment",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "First line treatment"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b>First-line treatment</b> refers to the first and standard treatment recommended for a particular disease."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "<b>Second-line treatment</b> refers to the next standard treatment recommended, if the first-line treatments have not worked or cause unacceptable side effects."
}
]
},
{
"id": "rifampicin",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rifampicin"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rifampicin is an antibiotic that is used to treat bacterial infections such as <a href=\"#dod:tuberculosis\">tuberculosis</a> and leprosy. It\u2019s often used as part of the <a href=\"#dod:first-line-treatment\">first-line treatment</a> for tuberculosis, along with other antibiotics."
}
]
},
{
"id": "lymphatic-system",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Lymphatic system"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The lymphatic system refers to a particular network of tissues and organs \u2013 including lymph nodes, vessels, and fluid \u2013\u00a0in the body."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The lymphatic system helps get rid of toxins, waste, and other unwanted materials in the body. It plays a key role in the immune system by transporting lymph, a fluid that contains white blood cells which fight infections, throughout the body."
}
]
},
{
"id": "global-fund",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Global Fund"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Global Fund is an international financial organization that provides funding and resources to countries to accelerate the end of <a href=\"#dod:hiv_aids\">AIDS</a>, <a href=\"#dod:tuberculosis\">tuberculosis</a>, and <a href=\"#dod:malaria\">malaria</a> as epidemics."
}
]
},
{
"id": "usaid",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "USAID"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The United States Agency for International Development (USAID), is an independent agency of the United States government that administers foreign aid and development assistance to countries around the world."
}
]
},
{
"id": "tuberculosis-skin-test",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Tuberculosis skin test"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The tuberculosis skin test often involves the injection of a small amount of substance called PPD tuberculin. This triggers an immune response in people who have been previously infected with TB bacteria."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "If the immune system recognizes the tuberculin, it results in swelling around the injection site. This reaction is measured to determine if a person has been exposed to TB bacteria."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The tuberculosis skin test can be affected by false positives, especially in people who have been vaccinated with the BCG vaccine or have an infection by a different mycobacterium. False negatives can also occur, especially in people with weakened immune systems or recent TB exposure."
}
]
},
{
"id": "watt-hours",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Watt-hour"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A watt-hour is the energy delivered by one watt of power for one hour. Since one watt is equivalent to one joule per second, a watt-hour is equivalent to 3600 joules of energy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Metric prefixes are used for multiples of the unit, usually:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- kilowatt-hours (kWh), or a thousand watt-hours."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Megawatt-hours (MWh), or a million watt-hours."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Gigawatt-hours (GWh), or a billion watt-hours."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Terawatt-hours (TWh), or a trillion watt-hours."
}
]
},
{
"id": "exoplanet_transit",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Transit method"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The transit method detects exoplanets by observing the dimming of a star as an orbiting planet passes between the star and the observer. This transit results in a periodic and slight dip in the star's brightness, which can be measured to infer the planet's presence, size, and orbit."
}
]
},
{
"id": "exoplanet_radial_velocity",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Radial velocity method"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Also known as Doppler spectroscopy, the radial velocity method measures changes in the star's spectrum due to the gravitational pull of an orbiting planet. As the planet orbits, it causes the star to move in a small orbit in response, which leads to slight shifts in the star's spectral lines due to the Doppler effect. These shifts can reveal the presence of a planet and provide information about its mass and orbit."
}
]
},
{
"id": "exoplanet_microlensing",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Microlensing method"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Gravitational microlensing occurs when the gravitational field of a star (and potentially its planet) acts as a lens, magnifying the light of a background star that happens to pass behind it from the observer's perspective. The presence of a planet can be detected through the specific characteristics of the light curve produced by this event."
}
]
},
{
"id": "equivalent_megaton",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Equivalent megaton"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A megaton is the explosive energy released by one million tons of TNT. For comparison, the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were 0.015 and 0.021 megatons, respectively."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "An <i>equivalent</i> megaton is a way of making the explosive energy of different warheads comparable. It weighs small warheads \u2014 in this case those with at most one megaton \u2014 more than large ones, because small warheads are relatively more destructive."
}
]
},
{
"id": "half-life",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Half-life"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The \u201chalf-life\u201d of a substance refers to the time it takes for that substance to halve in quantity."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "For example, in physics and chemistry, it often refers to the time it takes for half of the atoms in a particular radioactive sample to decay."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "However, the concept is widely used in various fields, including geology, finance, and pharmacology, to describe how quickly quantities degrade or react."
}
]
},
{
"id": "treaty-non-proliferation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The treaty\u2019s objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to pursue nuclear and general disarmament."
}
]
},
{
"id": "treaty-nuclear-test-partial",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Partial Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The treaty\u2019s objective is to stop nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, in outer space, and under water."
}
]
},
{
"id": "treaty-nuclear-test-comprehensive",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The treaty\u2019s objective is to stop nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, in outer space, under water, and underground."
}
]
},
{
"id": "treaty-nuclear-prohibition",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Nuclear Prohibition Treaty"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The treaty\u2019s objective is to stop developing, testing, producing, acquiring, possessing, stockpiling, deploying, using, and threatening to use nuclear weapons, as well as assisting other countries in these actions."
}
]
},
{
"id": "treaty-status-signed",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Country status \"Signed\" on a treaty"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This status means that the country accepts a treaty without a legal commitment."
}
]
},
{
"id": "treaty-status-committed",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Country status \"Approved\" on a treaty"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This status means that the country has legally committed to a treaty."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This status comprises one of the following actions defined by UNODA:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- \"Ratification\" is an act of formal confirmation, where a country consents to be legally bound to a treaty."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- \"Accession\" means that a country accepts to become a party to a treaty that has been signed by other states, not by the country itself. It has the same legal effect as ratification."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- \"Succession\" means that a newly formed country adopts the treaty obligations of a predecessor state."
}
]
},
{
"id": "treaty-status-not-signed",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Country status \"Not signed\" on a treaty"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This status means that the country has neither signed nor committed to a treaty."
}
]
},
{
"id": "treaty-status-withdrawn",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Country status \"Withdrawn\" on a treaty"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "This status means that the country has withdrawn from its legal commitment to a treaty."
}
]
},
{
"id": "improved-water-source",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Improved drinking water sources"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Improved drinking water sources are those that have the potential to deliver safe water by nature of their design and construction, and include: piped water, boreholes or tubewells, protected dug wells, protected springs, rainwater, and packaged or delivered water."
}
]
},
{
"id": "water-safely-managed",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Safely managed drinking water services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drinking water from an <a href=\"#dod:improved-water-source\">improved water source</a> that is accessible on premises, available when needed and free from faecal and priority chemical contamination."
}
]
},
{
"id": "water-basic",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Basic drinking water services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drinking water from an <a href=\"#dod:improved-water-source\">improved source</a>, provided collection time is not more than 30 minutes for a roundtrip including queuing."
}
]
},
{
"id": "water-limited",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Limited drinking water services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drinking water from an <a href=\"#dod:improved-water-source\">improved source</a> for which collection time exceeds 30 minutes for a roundtrip including queuing."
}
]
},
{
"id": "water-unimproved",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unimproved drinking water services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drinking water from an unprotected dug well or unprotected spring."
}
]
},
{
"id": "water-surface-water",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unimproved drinking water services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Drinking water directly from a river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal or irrigation canal."
}
]
},
{
"id": "sanitation-safely-managed",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Safely managed sanitation services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Use of <a href=\"#dod:improved-sanitation\">improved facilities</a> that are not shared with other households and where excreta are safely disposed of in situ or removed and treated offsite."
}
]
},
{
"id": "sanitation-basic",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Basic sanitation services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Use of <a href=\"#dod:improved-sanitation\">improved facilities</a> which are not shared with other households"
}
]
},
{
"id": "sanitation-limited",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Limited sanitation services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Use of <a href=\"#dod:improved-sanitation\">improved facilities</a> shared between two or more households."
}
]
},
{
"id": "sanitation-unimproved",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unimproved sanitation services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Use of pit latrines without a slab or platform, hanging latrines or bucket latrines."
}
]
},
{
"id": "sanitation-open-defecation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Unimproved sanitation services"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Disposal of human faeces in fields, forests, bushes, open bodies of water, beaches and other open spaces or with solid waste."
}
]
},
{
"id": "cities-degurba",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cities"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cities are settlements that have a population of at least 50,000 inhabitants in contiguous dense grid cells with more than 1,500 inhabitants per km\u00b2."
}
]
},
{
"id": "towns-suburbs-degurba",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Towns and suburbs"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Towns and suburbs are settlements that have a population of at least 5,000 inhabitants in contiguous grid cells with a density of at least 300 inhabitants per km\u00b2."
}
]
},
{
"id": "rural-areas-degurba",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rural areas"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Rural areas consist mostly of settlements with low-density grid cells with fewer than 300 inhabitants per km\u00b2."
}
]
},
{
"id": "eu-excellent-bathing-water",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Excellent bathing water quality"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In order for bathing sites to be classified as \u2018excellent\u2019 they must have low levels of both Escherichia coli (E. coli) and intestinal enterococci bacteria, as these are indicative of sewage pollution."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The acceptable levels vary depending on the location of the bathing sites."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "At coastal bathing sites, E. coli must not exceed 250 cfu (colony-forming units) per 100 ml of water, and intestinal enterococci must not exceed 100 cfu per 100 ml in more than 95% of the samples taken over a period of four bathing seasons. At inland bathing sites, these values are 500 cfu per 100ml and 200 cfu per 100ml, respectively."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ivs-important-in-life",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The question asked was:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "For each of the following aspects, indicate how important it is in your life. Would you say it is very important, rather important, not very important or not important at all?"
}
]
},
{
"id": "ivs-most-serious-problem",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The question asked was:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "I\u2019m going to read out some problems. Please indicate which of the following problems you consider the most serious one for the world as a whole?\""
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The problems listed were: \"People living in poverty and need\", \"Discrimination against girls and women\", \"Poor sanitation and infectious diseases\", \"Inadequate education\", and \"Environmental pollution\"."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ivs-justifiable",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The question asked was:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\"Please tell me for each of the following statements whether you think it can always be justified, never be justified, or something in between, using this card\"."
}
]
},
{
"id": "ivs-schwartz-questions",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The question is structured following Shalom H. Schwartz\u2019s questionnaire. Respondents are asked for the degree of identification they have with a hypothetical person described to them:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\"Now I will briefly describe some people. Using this card, would you please indicate for each description whether that person is very much like you, like you, somewhat like you, a little like you, not like you, or not at all like you?\""
}
]
},
{
"id": "ivs-neighbors",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The question asked was:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\"On this list are various groups of people. Could you please mention any that you would not like to have as neighbors?\"."
}
]
},
{
"id": "enlightenment",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Age of Enlightenment"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Age of Enlightenment, rooted in 17th and 18th century Western Europe, celebrated reason and individualism, profoundly reshaping education by promoting literacy and public access to knowledge. This shift laid the groundwork for enlightened, democratic societies in the modern world."
}
]
},
{
"id": "wildfires",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Wildfires"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "A wildfire, characterized by its uncontrolled and rapid spread, can occur in various types of vegetation and wildlands, including forests, savannahs, grasslands, and various other vegetation types. These incidents are identified using satellite imagery, which detects thermal anomalies as indicators of active burning areas."
}
]
},
{
"id": "regimes-of-the-world",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Regimes of the World\u2019s regime classification"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Closed autocracy: citizens do not have the right to choose either the chief executive of the government or the legislature through multi-party elections."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Electoral autocracy: citizens have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature through multi-party elections; but they lack some freedoms, such as the freedoms of association or expression that make the elections meaningful, free, and fair."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Electoral democracy: citizens have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature in meaningful, free and fair, and multi-party elections."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Liberal democracy: electoral democracy and citizens enjoy individual and minority rights, are equal before the law, and the actions of the executive are constrained by the legislative and the courts."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/regimes-of-the-world-data\">The \u2018Regimes of the World\u2019 data: how do researchers measure democracy?</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "regimes-lexical-index",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Lexical Index regime classification"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Non-electoral autocracy: citizens do not have the right to elect the chief executive or the legislature one-party autocracy: some citizens have the right to choose the chief executive or the legislature, but only have one choice."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Multiparty autocracy without elected executive: some citizens have the right to choose the legislature and have more than one choice, but chief executive not elected."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Multiparty autocracy: some citizens have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature and have more than one choice, but election outcome is certain."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Exclusive democracy: citizens have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature in multi-party, uncertain elections, but suffrage is restricted."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Male democracy: citizens have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature in multi-party, uncertain elections, but suffrage is restricted to men."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Electoral democracy: citizens have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature in multi-party, uncertain elections."
},
{
"type": "Polyarchy",
"value": "citizens have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature in multi-party, uncertain elections, and enjoy freedoms of expression, assembly, and association."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how sources differ and when to use which one</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "democracy-boix-miller-rosato",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Boix et al.\u2019s democracy classification"
},
{
"type": "Democracy",
"value": "a majority of adult men have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature in free and fair elections."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how sources differ and when to use which one</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "democracy-boix-miller-rosato-women",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Boix et al.\u2019s democracy classification (including women\u2019s right to vote)"
},
{
"type": "Democracy",
"value": "a majority of adult men and women have the right to choose the chief executive and the legislature in free and fair elections."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how sources differ and when to use which one</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "regimes-polity",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Polity\u2019s regime classification"
},
{
"type": "Democracy",
"value": "mostly democratic characteristics \u2014 open, multi-party, and competitive elections choose chief executive, who faces comprehensive institutional constraints, and political participation is competitive."
},
{
"type": "Anocracy",
"value": "neither clearly democratic nor autocratic characteristics."
},
{
"type": "Autocracy",
"value": "mostly autocratic characteristics \u2014 hereditary succession chooses chief executive who faces no institutional constraints, and political participation is restricted and suppressed."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how sources differ and when to use which one</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "regimes-fh",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Freedom House\u2019s regime classification"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Free country: citizens have many political rights (free and fair elections, political pluralism and participation, functioning government) and civil liberties (freedoms of expression and association, rule of law, personal autonomy)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Partly free country: citizens have some political rights and civil liberties."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Not free country: citizens have few political rights and civil liberties."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how sources differ and when to use which one</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "democracy-fh",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Freedom House\u2019s democracy classification"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Electoral democracy: citizens have the right to choose chief executive and legislature in broadly free and fair elections and have substantial other political rights and civil liberties."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how sources differ and when to use which one</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "regimes-bertelsmann",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Bertelsmann Transformation Index\u2019s regime classification"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Consolidating democracy: comprehensive democratic features and minimum democratic characteristics (citizens can choose political leaders in free and fair elections and enjoy freedoms of association, expression and some further civil liberties, political power is separated, and leaders can effectively govern a state that fulfils basic functions)."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Defective democracy: minimum democratic characteristics, but limited other democratic features."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Very defective democracy: minimum democratic characteristics, but very limited other democratic features."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Moderate autocracy: no minimum democratic characteristics, but possibly other broadly democratic features."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Hard-line autocracy: no minimum democratic characteristics, and few other democratic features."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how sources differ and when to use which one</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "regimes-economist",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Economist Intelligence Unit\u2019s regime classification"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Full democracy: comprehensive extent of democracy (extent to which citizens can choose their political leaders in free and fair elections, enjoy civil liberties, prefer democracy over other political systems, can and do participate in politics, and have a functioning government that acts on their behalf), few weaknesses."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Flawed democracy: some weaknesses in democratic institutions and culture."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Hybrid regime: serious weaknesses in democratic institutions and culture."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Authoritarian regime: few democratic institutions and little democratic culture."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement\">Democracy data: how sources differ and when to use which one</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "regimes-episodes-regime-transformation",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Episodes of Regime Transformations\u2019 regime classification"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Autocratizing country: a country that is becoming less electorally democratic, and has seen a substantial decrease in its degree of electoral democracy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Democratizing country: a country that is becoming more electorally democratic, and has seen a substantial increase in its degree of electoral democracy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/less-democratic\">The world has recently become less democratic</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "regimes-episodes-regime-transformation-expanded",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Episodes of Regime Transformations\u2019 expanded regime classification"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Hardening autocracy: an autocracy that is becoming less electorally democratic, and has seen a substantial decrease in its degree of electoral democracy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Stable autocracy: an autocracy that is neither autocratizing nor democratizing."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Liberalizing autocracy: an autocracy that is becoming more electorally democratic, and has seen a substantial increase in its degree of electoral democracy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Eroding democracy: a democracy that is becoming less electorally democratic, and has seen a substantial decrease in its degree of electoral democracy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Stable democracy: a democracy that is neither autocratizing nor democratizing."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Deepening democracy: a democracy that is becoming more electorally democratic, and has seen a substantial increase in its degree of electoral democracy."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Autocracies and democracies are very similarly defined to <a href=\"#dod:regimes-of-the-world\">Regimes of the World\u2019s classification</a>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcc4 Read more in our article: <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/less-democratic\">The world has recently become less democratic</a>"
}
]
},
{
"id": "manufactured-cigarettes",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Manufactured cigarettes"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Factory-made packeted cigarettes, with or without a filter."
}
]
},
{
"id": "who-air-quality-guidelines",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Air Quality Guidelines for PM<sub>2.5"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "</sub>"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "PM<sub>2.5</sub> refers to <a href=\"#dod:particulate_matter_pollution\">particulate matter</a> that is 2.5 micrometers in diameter or smaller. These fine particles pose significant health risks, leading the World Health Organization (WHO) to establish Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) and Interim Targets."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "These guidelines provide health-based recommendations for managing air quality, aimed at reducing exposure to air pollution and mitigating its adverse health impacts. Recognizing air pollution as a major environmental threat, the AQGs serve as a tool for governments and civil society to improve air quality and public health."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "PM2.5 Annual Average Guidelines and Interim Targets:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Interim Target-1 (IT-1): 35 \u00b5g/m\u00b3"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Interim Target-2 (IT-2): 25 \u00b5g/m\u00b3"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Interim Target-3 (IT-3): 15 \u00b5g/m\u00b3"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- Interim Target-4 (IT-4): 10 \u00b5g/m\u00b3"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "- AQG Level: 5 \u00b5g/m\u00b3"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Each step towards achieving the AQG represents progress in minimizing the health risks associated with PM2.5 pollution."
}
]
},
{
"id": "cantril-ladder",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Cantril Ladder"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The Cantril Ladder is a metric used to determine individuals life satisfaction, based on the following question:"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\u201cPlease imagine a ladder, with steps numbered from 0 at the bottom to 10 at the top. The top of the ladder represents the best possible life for you, and the bottom of the ladder represents the worst possible life for you. On which step of the ladder would you say you personally feel you stand at this time?\u201d"
}
]
},
{
"id": "gender-marker-change",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Gender marker change"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Changing one\u2019s gender in official national documents, such as one\u2019s personal identification document."
}
]
},
{
"id": "opioids",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Opioids"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Opioid drugs are medications that relieve pain by blocking pain signals in the brain and affecting the nervous system. They can be natural, like morphine, or synthetic, like fentanyl. While they are very effective for severe pain, they can also be highly addictive and dangerous if misused, leading to serious health problems or even death."
}
]
},
{
"id": "influenza",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Influenza"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Influenza (commonly known as the flu) is a contagious illness caused by the influenza virus."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "In severe cases, it can cause respiratory disease, such as pneumonia, and cardiovascular complications, such as heart attacks and strokes."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Influenza viruses evolve gradually in a process called \u201cantigenic drift\u201d, which causes annual seasonal outbreaks."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It can evolve suddenly, if different influenza viruses combine with each other to make new strains, which is called \u201cantigenic shift\u201d. This can result in strains that are more infectious and/or lethal, leading to pandemic influenza."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "\ud83d\udcd6 Read more on our page on <a href=\"https://ourworldindata.org/influenza\">influenza</a>."
}
]
},
{
"id": "pertussis",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pertussis"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Pertussis (commonly known as \u201cwhooping cough\u201d) is a highly contagious illness caused by the bacterium <i>Bordetella pertussis</i>."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "It can lead to serious respiratory complications such as pneumonia and difficulty breathing, especially in infants and young children."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "The bacteria produce toxins that damage the respiratory tract and cause severe coughing fits, which include a \"whooping\" sound during inhalation."
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Infections of pertussis can be reduced by vaccination with the pertussis vaccine."
}
]
},
{
"id": "biological-weapons",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Biological weapons"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Biological weapons are organisms or toxins used to cause death or harm through their poisonous properties."
}
]
},
{
"id": "chemical-weapons",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chemical weapons"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Chemical weapons are chemicals used to cause death or harm through their poisonous properties."
}
]
},
{
"id": "tree-cover-loss-commodity-driven",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Commidity driven deforestation"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Large-scale deforestation linked primarily to commercial agricultural expansion."
}
]
},
{
"id": "tree-cover-loss-forestry",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Forestry"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Temporary loss from plantation and natural forest harvesting, with some deforestation of primary forests."
}
]
},
{
"id": "tree-cover-loss-shifting-agriculture",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Shifting agriculture"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Temporary loss or permanent deforestation due to small- and medium-scale agriculture."
}
]
},
{
"id": "tree-cover-loss-wildfires",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Wildfires"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Temporary loss, does not include fire clearing for agriculture."
}
]
},
{
"id": "tree-cover-loss-urbanization",
"text": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Urbanization"
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": "Deforestation for expansion of urban centers."
}
]
}
],
"excerpt": "Source document for OWID\u2019s details on demand snippets",
"dateline": "April 12, 2023"
} |
1 | 2023-05-05 13:49:25 | 2023-05-08 22:27:00 | 2024-03-22 15:23:16 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lv5Ielzw-KD7uUEqt1kH_SXKoG5DGQCxzmFO1v-sBIfDuPyu73HHjQlFLMwn_fQH1QDiwhYgm7fKTYO_w | Details on Demand | ||
| 1ppx0jcy-PKs56l587pllO9_MtETIQTngRudb0VfoVbs | covid-testing-data-archived | article | {
"toc": [],
"body": [
{
"type": "text",
"value": [
{
"text": "We started building our COVID-19 testing dataset over two years ago, in March 2020. At the time, only data on confirmed cases and deaths was available. However, these figures are highly dependent on how much a country has actually tested.",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": [
{
"text": "Countries with low testing capacities will miss most cases and therefore fail to give an accurate count of deaths caused by the disease.",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": [
{
"text": "This dataset provided essential context for the data on confirmed cases and deaths, as well as insight into the pandemic and how it spread. You can read more about our COVID-19 testing dataset in our paper:",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"url": "https://rdcu.be/b8eoK",
"type": "prominent-link",
"title": "A cross-country database of COVID-19 testing",
"description": "",
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"text": [
{
"text": "Why are we stopping updates?",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"type": "heading",
"level": 1,
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": [
{
"text": "As of 23 June 2022, we will no longer add new data points to our COVID-19 testing dataset. There are several reasons for this.",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": [
{
"text": "Firstly, reporting methods have become very different between countries, and the type of tests (PCR, antigen, at-home self-tests) included in the data is increasingly unclear.",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": [
{
"text": "Secondly, testing and case confirmation criteria have diverged significantly between countries: the type of test necessary to confirm a case; if a referral from a GP is required for laboratory tests; if laboratory tests are free or subsidized; if at-home self-tests are available; whether vaccination status influences these parameters. These factors have made harmonizing data definitions across countries difficult to sustain.",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": [
{
"text": "Furthermore, with very high infection rates since the emergence of the Omicron variant, the main focus of public health authorities has shifted from case metrics to other endpoints, such as hospital and ICU admissions, deaths, and excess mortality (we will continue to collect and ",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
},
{
"url": "https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/coronavirus-data-explorer",
"children": [
{
"text": "publish data",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"spanType": "span-link"
},
{
"text": " on all of these important metrics). As a result, countries have begun to report testing data less frequently.",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"text": [
{
"text": "Alternative sources of testing data",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"type": "heading",
"level": 1,
"parseErrors": []
},
{
"type": "text",
"value": [
{
"text": "All historical data collected to date will remain available in our ",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
},
{
"url": "https://github.com/owid/covid-19-data/tree/master/public/data",
"children": [
{
"text": "dataset",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
}
],
"spanType": "span-link"
},
{
"text": ", on our ",
"spanType": "span-simple-text"
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1 | 2024-03-06 13:33:16 | 2022-05-31 10:19:15 | 2024-03-06 13:39:08 | listed | ALBJ4LvODDO0lcmqoa4PCeEJlLh-evdkWD8H8kA6oxhvrxfVfuakapA0qLJ3VVlJFeBASoTfL8rnw_WBkaehSQ | We started building our COVID-19 testing dataset over two years ago, in March 2020. At the time, only data on confirmed cases and deaths was available. However, these figures are highly dependent on how much a country has actually tested. Countries with low testing capacities will miss most cases and therefore fail to give an accurate count of deaths caused by the disease. This dataset provided essential context for the data on confirmed cases and deaths, as well as insight into the pandemic and how it spread. You can read more about our COVID-19 testing dataset in our paper: ### A cross-country database of COVID-19 testing https://rdcu.be/b8eoK # Why are we stopping updates? As of 23 June 2022, we will no longer add new data points to our COVID-19 testing dataset. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, reporting methods have become very different between countries, and the type of tests (PCR, antigen, at-home self-tests) included in the data is increasingly unclear. Secondly, testing and case confirmation criteria have diverged significantly between countries: the type of test necessary to confirm a case; if a referral from a GP is required for laboratory tests; if laboratory tests are free or subsidized; if at-home self-tests are available; whether vaccination status influences these parameters. These factors have made harmonizing data definitions across countries difficult to sustain. Furthermore, with very high infection rates since the emergence of the Omicron variant, the main focus of public health authorities has shifted from case metrics to other endpoints, such as hospital and ICU admissions, deaths, and excess mortality (we will continue to collect and [publish data](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/coronavirus-data-explorer) on all of these important metrics). As a result, countries have begun to report testing data less frequently. # Alternative sources of testing data All historical data collected to date will remain available in our [dataset](https://github.com/owid/covid-19-da… | Ending our COVID-19 testing data updates | |
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1 | 2024-07-29 13:38:33 | 2024-07-29 11:00:00 | 1970-01-01 00:00:00 | unlisted | ALBJ4LuUhUYeVRcrVTQpekrCQPJbMGL0asWnnRlbwxXltnQPkiQ8brDTxnYq_t48Vlk0G1Xgb2TSip2tHd3t0w | What’s the difference between mineral reserves and resources? | ||
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1 | 2024-05-23 12:56:02 | 2024-05-28 12:20:31 | 1970-01-01 00:00:00 | unlisted | ALBJ4LsNSIEV8a2cd1ySeojFyplkvhW8jA0ez3bcVALtTGDfUaqoaxpqyTUzvyO6XFF-8h97IoxF50-oerF3Cg | Esteban Ortiz-Ospina | ||
| 1pRAxZhIjvgSDkKHws4lcG3cXIT5fpwFW8ekkucWVG2M | polio-testing | article | {
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"slug": "how-do-countries-monitor-for-polio",
"text": "How do countries monitor for polio?",
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"text": "How many potential cases of polio are being identified through screening?",
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"text": "How many potential cases are being tested for polio?",
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"slug": "which-countries-are-screening-and-testing-insufficiently-for-polio",
"text": "Which countries are screening and testing insufficiently for polio?",
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"slug": "improving-the-monitoring-of-polio-is-crucial-to-achieve-global-eradication",
"text": "Improving the monitoring of polio is crucial to achieve global eradication",
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"text": "The world is very close to eradicating polio.",
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"text": " that there were between 300,000 to 400,000 cases of paralytic polio every year in the early 1980s. Since then, the number has declined dramatically. In 2020 there were less than 2,000.",
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"text": "Until recently, there were three strains of wild poliovirus. The world has eradicated two of them, and just one is left in circulation today.",
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"text": "Despite being so close to the finishing line, we are in danger of moving backward.",
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"text": "There has been a disruption in polio testing and reporting during the ",
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"text": "COVID-19 pandemic",
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"text": "; this means there's a risk that cases have gone undetected, and the poliovirus has spread further in recent years.",
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"text": "Cases have been rising in the few countries where wild poliovirus remains endemic: Afghanistan and Pakistan. We see this in the chart, which shows that cases have risen since 2017.",
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"text": "Worryingly, there is the risk that cases are spreading in countries that have been declared free of wild poliovirus. Malawi and Mozambique each reported a case in 2021 and 2022 respectively, after three decades of seeing no cases of wild polio.",
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"text": "Several countries have also reported cases of ",
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"text": "vaccine-derived polio",
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"text": ", which can be combatted with the novel oral poliovirus vaccine (nOPV2).",
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"text": "To get back on track to eradicate this virus, the world needs two things: more vaccination and better monitoring of potential outbreaks. Here we focus on the latter: looking at where countries are falling short on monitoring, and what needs to be done.",
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"text": "How do countries monitor for polio?",
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"text": "To identify which countries are falling behind on monitoring for polio, we first need to understand how a case of polio is identified.",
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"text": "The primary sign of polio is a type of paralysis, which is called acute flaccid paralysis (AFP).",
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"text": "This is how potential cases of polio are identified: when someone suddenly develops AFP, they are considered a potential case of polio.",
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"text": "But polio is not the only illness that can cause AFP \u2013 other illnesses, such as Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome, can also cause it. This means that, when a case of AFP is identified, healthcare workers need to test the patient for the presence of poliovirus.",
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"text": "The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that potential cases should be reported immediately and investigated within 48 hours. To test them, they need to have two stool samples taken within 14 days of the onset of paralysis.",
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"text": "We need to look at two measures to assess which countries are doing enough monitoring for polio. The first is how much ",
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"text": " they\u2019re doing for potential cases. The second is how much ",
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"text": " they\u2019re doing to confirm the presence of poliovirus.",
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"text": "If a country is detecting very few cases of AFP overall, then it suggests it\u2019s not screening enough for paralysis. So, to measure how much screening is ongoing, we can look at how many cases of AFP that are ",
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"text": "caused by polio are being detected. This is called the non-polio AFP rate.",
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"text": "This rate is measured per 100,000 children. The higher the rate, the more likely that potential cases of polio are being identified. The GPEI recommends that this rate should be at least 2.",
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"text": "In the chart, we see the rate of non-polio AFP cases over time. You can view this metric for more countries by clicking the \"Add country\" button.",
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"text": "In Afghanistan and Pakistan, where polio remains endemic, the rate has improved considerably and has been well above the minimum recommendation, even during the COVID-19 pandemic, when the rate fell slightly.",
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"text": "However, in Malawi, which recently reported a case of wild polio, the rate has fluctuated above and below the minimum recommendation. In other Eastern African countries such as Rwanda, Burundi, and Zimbabwe, the rate has been just slightly above the minimum recommendation for several years.",
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"text": "With low screening in Malawi recently, it\u2019s possible that polio cases could be more widespread.",
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"text": "To do this, we look at the percentage of paralysis cases that have stool samples taken to test for polio. The higher this percentage, the more potential cases are being tested to confirm whether they are infected by the poliovirus.",
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"text": "In this chart, we can see the testing rate of AFP cases. The WHO recommends that this percentage should be at least 80%.",
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"text": "In 2020, in Afghanistan and Pakistan, where polio remains endemic, the testing rate of AFP cases was above the minimum recommendation. Testing has been consistently above the minimum for more than a decade.",
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"text": "Testing rates in Malawi and Mozambique fell below the minimum recommendation during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is particularly concerning, as they each recently reported a case of wild polio, which may mean that more cases are being missed.",
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"text": "In other Eastern African countries, such as Zambia, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, testing rates have also fallen well below the minimum recommendation. Similarly, in Nigeria, which has recently reported cases of vaccine-derived polioviruses, testing has fallen dramatically during the pandemic.",
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"text": "Some countries have their own screening and testing procedures and are ",
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"text": " to have a low risk for polio by the Global Polio Eradication Initiative. These are shown in light blue and labeled 'low risk' in the chart.",
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"text": "In 2021, the countries shown in dark blue, such as Afghanistan and Pakistan, which are endemic for polio, had adequate screening and testing for polio.",
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"text": "But in the purple countries \u2013 Ukraine, Myanmar, and Cambodia \u2013 there was inadequate ",
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"text": " to identify potential cases of polio. This is distressing as Ukraine had reported two cases of vaccine-derived polio in 2021. Although a large vaccination campaign had begun in late 2021, this was halted ",
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"text": "Meanwhile, in the countries shown in yellow \u2013 India, the Philippines, and Malaysia, as well as many countries in Africa \u2013 there was inadequate ",
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"text": "Further, in the red countries \u2013 Guinea-Bissau, Laos, and Indonesia \u2013 there was both inadequate screening ",
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"text": "inadequate testing. This is particularly worrying because it's possible that these countries may be missing cases of vaccine-derived polio, which can be averted using the novel oral poliovirus vaccine.",
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"text": "Low rates of screening and testing make it challenging to direct efforts to contain the disease and they keep us back from achieving polio eradication worldwide.",
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"text": "To combat this, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative has launched a ",
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"text": "We would like to thank Hannah Ritchie, Max Roser, Edouard Mathieu and Bastian Herre for reading drafts of this post and their very helpful suggestions to improve it.",
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"text": "The cases in Malawi and Mozambique were found to be genetic descendants of polioviruses seen in Pakistan, even though they had no relevant travel history. Although this has not changed their status of polio-free certification, it suggests that there may be other undetected spread of the poliovirus in the region.",
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1 | 2024-02-07 11:01:41 | 2022-06-09 10:00:00 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LvZTuvIv9f6nSqeHFYdou29iQIleT7IY79oxpKAu1OHMfUvoSv8bs-H3HAKyfKMv6BDHHbjlEyOrcRyDA | The world is very close to eradicating polio. It's [estimated](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-of-estimated-paralytic-polio-cases-by-world-region) that there were between 300,000 to 400,000 cases of paralytic polio every year in the early 1980s. Since then, the number has declined dramatically. In 2020 there were less than 2,000. Until recently, there were three strains of wild poliovirus. The world has eradicated two of them, and just one is left in circulation today.1 Despite being so close to the finishing line, we are in danger of moving backward. There has been a disruption in polio testing and reporting during the [COVID-19 pandemic](http://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus); this means there's a risk that cases have gone undetected, and the poliovirus has spread further in recent years. Cases have been rising in the few countries where wild poliovirus remains endemic: Afghanistan and Pakistan. We see this in the chart, which shows that cases have risen since 2017. Worryingly, there is the risk that cases are spreading in countries that have been declared free of wild poliovirus. Malawi and Mozambique each reported a case in 2021 and 2022 respectively, after three decades of seeing no cases of wild polio.2 Several countries have also reported cases of [vaccine-derived polio](https://ourworldindata.org/polio#vaccine-induced-polio), which can be combatted with the novel oral poliovirus vaccine (nOPV2).3 To get back on track to eradicate this virus, the world needs two things: more vaccination and better monitoring of potential outbreaks. Here we focus on the latter: looking at where countries are falling short on monitoring, and what needs to be done. <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/the-number-of-reported-paralytic-polio-cases?tab=map&country=NGA~AFG~PAK~MWI"/> <Chart url="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/the-number-of-reported-paralytic-polio-cases?tab=chart&country=NGA~AFG~PAK~MWI"/> ## How do countries monitor for polio? To identify which countries are falling behind on … | We need more testing to eradicate polio worldwide | |
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1 | 2023-11-10 16:02:14 | 2019-11-01 15:04:16 | 2024-02-29 11:07:22 | unlisted | ALBJ4Ltyqe7oEsf5aJ3pgniFVkURwkILaK3KtYx_HeP89JgrD7ahSA96Y89LtEFxrQ9KA1L5mAqcXwo60Aj9Zg | Pneumonia is one of the most common causes of death worldwide. It is a condition of the inflammation of the lungs, specifically in the alveoli, which are millions of tiny air sacs that help us take in oxygen. In pneumonia, these alveoli become filled with pus and fluid, which makes breathing painful and reduces our ability to take in oxygen from the air we breathe and exhale carbon dioxide. Pneumonia is one of the leading [causes of death](https://ourworldindata.org/causes-of-death) worldwide. It can develop from a range of different infections, which are caused by different pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. This includes, for example, _Streptococcus pneumoniae_,_ Haemophilus influenzae_,_ Staphylococcus aureus_, [influenza](https://ourworldindata.org/influenza) (flu), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and more. These pathogens are contagious and can spread when a person coughs or sneezes. On this topic page, we look at who is suffering from pneumonia and why — and what can we do to reduce the number of people dying from this disease, with interventions such as vaccination, oxygen therapy, reducing air pollution, and more. **[See all interactive charts on pneumonia ↓](#all-charts)** ### Related topics ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1h37-KpdZ3qAJ9xSA4OhbmGfmLr3Ydc_z9oHtDTszBuQ/edit ### undefined undefined https://docs.google.com/document/d/1lmIiF_8Vlm2_ysg5UXeRPmQ_M8XbmXqzRs7g2uGwGyc/edit **Other research and writing on pneumonia on Our World in Data:** * [Pneumonia — no child should die from a disease we can prevent](https://ourworldindata.org/child-deaths-from-pneumonia) # Burden of pneumonia ## Number of people dying from pneumonia by age The chart here shows the global number of deaths from pneumonia1 by age group. The number of children dying from pneumonia has decreased substantially over the past three decades. In 1990, more than two million children died from pneumonia every year. By 2019, this number had fallen by almost two-thirds. Reductions… | Pneumonia | |
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1 | 2024-03-10 13:18:58 | 2023-02-28 12:49:05 | 2024-03-10 13:23:50 | listed | ALBJ4LtFCpK9R6zuQNrmer6lvlJ7wUagIpYKlBpX53kflQtvaFkZ1X7VhnDn9Kvb-HXUjcKB39SkQbDCCi4J2Q | Johns Hopkins University has been at the forefront of collecting and reporting data on confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths since the outbreak began in 2020. However, it [recently announced](https://github.com/CSSEGISandData/COVID-19/issues/6577) that it would stop updating its data on 10 March 2023. Our team at Our World in Data recognizes the importance of up-to-date data on the pandemic. We will switch our primary source to [the World Health Organization (WHO)](https://covid19.who.int/data), which updates its dataset weekly. To keep this data consistent over time, we will replace the entire time series with WHO data on 8 March 2023. Our goal is to continue providing the most complete and timely data on the pandemic, and relying on the WHO data is the best way to achieve this. This change will be seamless for our users. The URL of all our charts and the variable names in our dataset will remain the same. [All other COVID-19 datasets](https://github.com/owid/covid-19-data/tree/master/public/data) we maintain will remain unchanged. An archive of the last version (8 March 2023) of our dataset based on data from Johns Hopkins University is available for download [here](https://covid.ourworldindata.org/data/owid-covid-data-old.csv) (CSV file, 69 Mo). We want to take this opportunity to thank the team at Johns Hopkins for their crucial work since the beginning of the pandemic. Their efforts have been invaluable in helping us understand the impact of this virus across the world. | Our World in Data will rely on data from the WHO to track confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths | |
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1 | 2024-04-09 14:59:28 | 2024-05-30 06:49:52 | 2024-05-08 06:13:27 | unlisted | ALBJ4LvEDZUQLWZiO8-wyhotmOGO031kfVh0azGHAEKxb7dCcERKo4oQtk-VzLO0NwJ-Tg9GStZKNRBk9aYx_g | <Image filename="season-temp-us-desktop.png"/> The world is [getting hotter](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/temperature-anomaly) as a result of climate change, with some countries [warming faster](https://ourworldindata.org/temperature-anomaly) than others. But _within_ countries, warming is not equal across the year. In the United States, winters have warmed faster than any other season. This is followed by spring, with summer and fall showing the slowest rates. The chart below shows the temperature _anomaly_ — the change in seasonal temperature compared to the average over the 20th century (1901 to 2000). This data is [collected and published](https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-seasonal-temperature) by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. American winters have warmed by nearly 3 degrees Fahrenheit (°F), compared to 1.5°F to 2°F in other seasons. Minimum temperatures [have increased faster](https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/6/) than maximum temperatures. That means nighttime temperatures have increased more than daytime temperatures. [Explore the data](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/seasonal-temp-anomaly-us) → | Winters have warmed faster than summers in the United States | |
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1 | 2023-09-22 10:07:06 | 2023-10-02 17:12:55 | 2023-12-28 16:31:10 | listed | ALBJ4LvXKf2DINnbVl0yMFMPsf1UK8u9Vx4W7Dfuk5uigaQjPxiPCSAbWxepvb6NeqURmp2hIYE9Dpgj4TLaIw | We are excited to introduce our two newest board members, Rachel Glennerster and Sir Andrew Dilnot. The two of them are now part of the Board of Trustees at [Global Change Data Lab](https://global-change-data-lab.org/), the charity that publishes and maintains Our World in Data. They will join Wendy Carlin, Hetan Shah, and Stefano Caria. --- ## Rachel Glennerster CMG, FRSA <Image filename="Glennerster4.jpeg"/> Rachel Glennerster is a distinguished expert in policy, research, and international development. Formerly the Chief Economist of the UK's Department for International Development (DFID), she has made significant contributions to the field, including her pivotal role in the development economics RCT revolution. As the executive director of J-PAL and a co-founder of the Deworm the World Initiative, she brings a wealth of experience at the intersection of policy and data. Rachel's international perspective and expertise will provide invaluable insights to our board discussions. Her addition will bolster our efforts in education and health topics. --- ## Sir Andrew William Dilnot CBE <Image filename="s465_SirAndrewDilnot.jpeg"/> Andrew Dilnot is the Warden of Nuffield College Oxford. He was chair of the UK Statistics Authority from 2012 to 2017, the founding presenter of BBC Radio 4’s program ‘More or Less’, the Principal of St Hugh’s College Oxford from 2002-2012, and the Director of the Institute for Fiscal Studies from 1991-2002. --- We are truly grateful that the two of them have chosen to dedicate their time and expertise to help us achieve [our mission](https://ourworldindata.org/problems-and-progress). | Welcoming Rachel Glennerster and Andrew Dilnot | |
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"text": "The three maps summarize the global history of life expectancy over the last two centuries: Back in 1800 a newborn baby could only expect a short life, no matter where in the world it was born. In 1950 newborns had the chance of a longer life if they were lucky enough to be born in the right place. In recent decades all regions of the world made very substantial progress, and it were those regions that were worst-off in 1950 that achieved the biggest progress since then. The divided world of 1950 has been narrowing.",
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"text": "The country-by-country estimates for 1800 come with a considerable uncertainty and to not give a false sense of certainty I have not added these estimates into the map, but the estimates for life expectancies are considerably lower than 40 years \u2013 as is also shown for the regional and global estimates so that it is safe to assume that showing a life expectancy of less than 40 years on the map is correct. The few European countries with a life expectancy close to 40 years have more accurate data for this time period so that it seems unlikely that the life expectancy there was over 40 years, or at best it was only barely over 40 years.",
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"text": "Data sources. I have relied on data from our entry on life expectancy and the combination of data we produced based on Riley (2005) for regional and global averages in 1800, Gapminder for country estimates in 1800, and the United Nations Population Division for country estimates in 1950 and 2015. James Riley (2005) \u2013 Estimates of Regional and Global Life Expectancy, 1800\u20132001. Population and Development Review. Volume31, Issue3 September 2005 Pages 537-543. First published: 21 October 2005 ",
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"text": "For a discussion of pre-health transition estimates of life expectancy see\u00a0James Riley (2005) \u2013 Estimates of Regional and Global Life Expectancy, 1800\u20132001. Population and Development Review. Volume31, Issue3 September 2005 Pages 537-543. First published: 21 October 2005 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2005.00083.x",
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"title": "Twice as long \u2013 life expectancy around the world",
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"excerpt": "Life expectancy has doubled over the last two centuries around the world. How has this happened?",
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1 | 2023-10-12 11:03:59 | 2018-10-08 11:59:30 | 2024-03-18 15:41:59 | listed | ALBJ4LtUxYBv1b31tiilXqdnTLhLVkbVXmW-Yk8AslSVnuLXQ5Loejm8rC0GyM4GpS-161-r80YKdeEGJxuw9Q | The three maps show the global history of life expectancy over the last two centuries.1 <Image filename="3-World-maps-of-Life-expectancy-e1538651530288.png"/> Demographic research suggests that at the beginning of the 19th century no country in the world had a life expectancy longer than 40 years.3 Every country is shown in red. Almost everyone in the world [lived in extreme poverty](https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty), we had very little medical knowledge, and in all countries our ancestors had to prepare for an early death. Over the next 150 years _some_ parts of the world achieved substantial health improvements. A global divide opened. In 1950 the life expectancy for newborns was already over 60 years in Europe, North America, Oceania, Japan and parts of South America. But elsewhere a newborn could only expect to live around 30 years. The global inequality in health was enormous in 1950: People in Norway had a life expectancy of 72 years, whilst in Mali this was 26 years. Africa as a whole had an average life expectancy of only 36 years, while people in other world regions could expect to live more than twice as long. The decline of [child mortality](https://ourworldindata.org/child-mortality) was important for the increase of life expectancy, but as we explain in our [entry on life expectancy](https://ourworldindata.org/entries/life-expectancy) increasing life expectancy was certainly not only about falling child mortality – [life expectancy increased at all ages](https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy#it-is-not-only-about-child-mortality-life-expectancy-by-age). Such improvements in life expectancy — despite being exclusive to particular countries — was a landmark sign of progress. It was the first time in human history that we achieved sustained improvements in health for entire populations.4 After millennia of stagnation in terrible health conditions the seal was finally broken. Now, let’s look at the change since 1950. Many of us have not updated our world view. We still [tend to think]… | Twice as long – life expectancy around the world | |
| 1oiiJ1mUXrkXXGcbtTlcJcw1LxBzJ-tc2YDRBmbSnP4g | differences-in-life-expectancy-across-the-world-are-extremely-large | data-insight | {
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"title": "Differences in life expectancy across the world are extremely large",
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1 | 2023-12-28 18:04:29 | 2024-03-04 07:55:33 | 2024-03-06 09:09:16 | unlisted | ALBJ4Lsf08gsBDU3Z47Ph937LPhJd3L4vMSFqjQX-NEoMJDHihfBSXoKIfw5eaMDKBXSbW3dGKI6RxwlKKPByA | <Image filename="life-expectancy-desktop2.png"/> People in richer countries tend to live much longer than those in poorer countries. We can see this in the cross-country life expectancy statistics shown on the chart. In Japan, life expectancy at birth is about 85 years, while in Chad and Nigeria, life expectancy is about 52 years — a gap of over three decades. [Explore this data](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy?time=latest&country=JPN~CHN~USA~OWID_WRL~IND~ETH~NGA~TCD) → | Differences in life expectancy across the world are extremely large | |
| 1oh0rTB9nZPq00zIJVaHzGC87AiJcjsV8DmYI3eDXFr8 | battery-price-decline | article | {
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"text": "To reduce global greenhouse gas emissions we need to shift towards a low-carbon energy system. Large reductions in the cost of renewable technologies such as solar and wind have made them cost-competitive with fossil fuels. But to balance these intermittent sources and electrify our transport systems, we also need ",
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"text": "But the cost of electricity technologies themselves is only part of what matters for this transition. One of the challenges that renewables face is that they produce energy intermittently. The sun doesn\u2019t always shine, and the wind doesn\u2019t always blow, so we don\u2019t get a steady flow of generation throughout the day.",
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"text": "There are several ways to store excess energy. Most of us think of batteries. Here we\u2019re going to look at lithium-ion batteries: the most common type. Lithium-ion batteries are used in everything, ranging from your mobile phone and laptop to electric vehicles and grid storage.",
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"text": " electric car \u2013 which is also one of the most affordable models \u2013 has a 40 kWh battery. At our 2018 price, the battery costs around $7,300. Imagine trying to buy the same model in 1991: the battery alone would cost $300,000.",
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1 | 2024-02-27 18:50:04 | 2021-06-04 10:00:00 | 2024-02-27 19:18:38 | listed | ALBJ4LtvIPqCoxRgjAWa8WhYR65_YQtCYCNvEJGRyo-Z-A9mQfzsroPE5RExcBE1uvvIsizVN2TtxDvt1jyqpQ | <Callout title="Summary"/> To reduce emissions, the world needs to rapidly transition towards a low-carbon energy system. Around three-quarters of [global greenhouse gas emissions](https://ourworldindata.org/ghg-emissions-by-sector) come from energy and industry. One of the barriers to this energy transition has been the relative cost of different energy sources. Fossil fuels were cheaper than renewables and therefore became the dominating sources of energy. Thankfully this is changing quickly. As my colleague Max Roser showed in [this article](https://ourworldindata.org/cheap-renewables-growth), the cost of renewable technologies has plummeted. They’re now cost-competitive or cheaper than new fossil fuels. In 2009, it was more than three times as expensive as coal. Now the script has flipped, and a new solar plant is almost three times cheaper than a new coal one. The price of electricity from solar declined by 89% between 2009 and 2019. But the cost of electricity technologies themselves is only part of what matters for this transition. One of the challenges that renewables face is that they produce energy intermittently. The sun doesn’t always shine, and the wind doesn’t always blow, so we don’t get a steady flow of generation throughout the day.1 An obvious solution is to store excess energy and then release it later. But to do so, we need lots of energy storage and this adds large costs to our energy system.2 The promising news is that these technologies have seen similarly impressive price declines as solar panels have. # The price of lithium-ion batteries has declined by 97% since 1991 There are several ways to store excess energy. Most of us think of batteries. Here we’re going to look at lithium-ion batteries: the most common type. Lithium-ion batteries are used in everything, ranging from your mobile phone and laptop to electric vehicles and grid storage.3 The price of lithium-ion battery cells declined by 97% in the last three decades. A battery with a capacity of one kilowatt-hour that cost $7… | The price of batteries has declined by 97% in the last three decades | |
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1 | 2024-04-16 09:17:07 | 2024-04-24 05:55:27 | 2024-04-23 12:14:24 | unlisted | ALBJ4LuacHLmdguUvsaXtP-Jpt4lF8_oMtal6dwb3FkurW6JJmvuWLjINbek8-BlZsgH5S7L4xB9STRwKGmHMQ | On _Our World in Data_, you can find thousands of indicators and hundreds of articles covering more than [100 topics](https://ourworldindata.org/#all-topics) on the pressing problems the world faces. This range of content makes the ability to _search_ across our site particularly important. We recently released some improvements to our search tools that will make it easier for people to explore the range of our work and quickly find what they are looking for. There are two main changes. # 1) Finding data for particular countries When you include one or more country names in a query, our search now looks for data that includes those countries and shows you an instant preview within our charts. For example, searching for “[Life expectancy Nigeria India Australia](https://ourworldindata.org/search?q=life%20expectancy%20Nigeria%20India%20Australia)” shows you a preview of our top chart results for “Life expectancy” with those countries already displayed. Clicking “Show more” takes you to the Charts tab, where you can find all relevant chart results. Clicking on any result takes you to an interactive visualization with those countries selected. <Video url="https://assets.ourworldindata.org/videos/search_life_expectancy.mp4" filename="search-life-expectancy-poster.png" caption="Data for queried countries are now shown directly in search results" shouldLoop="true"/> # 2) Unlocking thousands of indicators contained in our Data Explorers A primary way we make data accessible is through our _Data Explorers_ — interactive visualization tools that allow you to explore a wide range of related indicators. See, for example, our Data Explorers on: * [Global Health](https://ourworldindata.org/explorers/global-health) * [Poverty](https://ourworldindata.org/poverty#explore-data-on-poverty) * [Energy](https://ourworldindata.org/energy#explore-data-on-energy) * [Environmental Impacts of Food](https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food#explore-data-on-the-environmental-impacts-of-food) Each Explorer contains… | We’ve improved how search works on Our World in Data |
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